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Authorized  Edition. 


1  /  / 


THE^EXPRESSION  OF  THE 
EMOTIONS  IN  MAN  AND  ANIMALS, 


CHARLES    DARWIN 

M.  A.,    F.  R.  S.r  ETC  , 


JT/r/r  PHOTOGRAPHIC  AND   OTHER  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Specially  Published 

for 

THE   BRUNSWICK   SUBSCRIPTION    CO. 

by 

D.   APPLETON    &    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK 

\  1915 

\ 


CONTENTS 


IifTBODUCTioK Pages  l-fi$ 

CHAP.  I.— General  Principles  of  Expression. 
The  three  chief  principles  stated— The  first  principle— Serviceable  ac- 
tions become  habitual  in  association  with  certain  states  of  the  mind^ 
and  are  performed  whether  or  not  of  service  in  each  particular  case — 
The  force  of  habit— Inheritance — Associated  habitual  movement*  in 
man— Eeflex  actions — Passage  of  habits  into  reflex  actions— Asso- 
ciated habitual  movements  in  the  lower  animals— Concluding  re- 
marks   27-4& 

CHAP.  IL— General  Principles  of  Expression — continued. 

The  Principle  of  Antithesis— Instances  in  the  dog  and  cat— Origin  of 

the  principle— Conventional  signs— The  prineiple  of  antithesis  has 

not  arisen  from  opposite  actions  being  consciously  performed  under 

opposite  impulses 60-65 

CHAP.  III.— General  Principles  of  Expression — concluded. 
The  principle  of  the  direct  action  of  the  excited  nervous  system  on  the 
body,  independently  of  the  will  and  in  part  of  habit — Change  of 
colour  in  the  hair — Trembling  of  the  muscles — Modified  secretions — 
Perspiration— Expression  of  extreme  pain— Of  rage,  great  joy,  and 
terror — Contrast  between  the  emotions  which  cause  and  do  not  cause 
expressive  movements — Exciting  and  depressing  states  of  the  mind — 
Summary 66-82 

CHAP.  IV. — Means  of  Expression  in  Animals. 
The  emission  of  sounds — Vocal  sounds — Sounds  otherwise  produced — 
Erection  of  the  dermal  appendages,  hairs,  feathers,  &c.,  under  the 
emotions  of  anger  and  terror — The  drawing  back  of  the  ears  as  a  prep- 
aration for  fighting,  and  as  an  expression  of  anger — Erection  of  the 

ears  and  raising  the  head,  a  sign  of  attention 8S-114 

iii 


iv  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  V. — Special  Expbe88ion3  of  Animalb. 
The  Dog,  various  expressive  movements  of— Cats — Horses — Ruminants 
— Monkeys,  their  expression  of  joy  and  affection — Of  pain — Anger — 
Astonishment  and  Terror Pages  115-145 

CHAP.  VI. — Special  Expkessions  of  Man  :  Suffering  and 
Weeping. 
The  screaming  and  weeping  of  infants — Form  of  features — Age  at  which 
weeping  commences — The  effects  of  habitual  restraint  on  weeping — 
Sobbing — Cause  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  dur- 
ing screaming — Cause  of  the  secretion  of  tears 146-175 

CHAP.  VII. — Low  Spirits,  Anxiety,  Grief,  Dejection,  Despair. 
General  effect  of  grief  on  the  system — Obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  under 
suffering — On  the  cause  of  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows — On  the  de- 
pression of  the  corners  of  the  mouth 176-195 

CHAP.  VIII. — Joy,  High  Spirits,  Love,  Tender  Feelings,  Devotion. 

Laughter  primarily  the  expression  of  joy — Ludicrous  ideas — Movements 
of  the  features  during  laughter — Nature  of  the  sound  produced — The 
secretion  of  tears  during  loud  laughter — Gradation  from  loud  laughter 
to  gentle  smiling — High  spirits — The  expression  of  love — Tender  feel- 
ings—Devotion   196-219 

CHAP.  IX. — Reflection — Meditation — Ill-temper — Sulkiness — 
Determination. 
The  act  of  frowning — Reflection  with  an  effort  or  with  the  perception  of 
something  difficult  or  disagreeable — Abstracted  meditation — Hi-tem- 
per— Moroseness — Obstinacy — Sulkiness   and    pouting — Decision   or 
determination— The  firm  closure  of  the  mouth 220-236 

CHAP.  X. — Hatred  and  Anger. 

Hatred — Rage,  effects  of  on  the  system — Uncovering  of  the  teeth — Rage 

in  the  insane — Anger  and  indignation — As  expressed  by  the  various 

races  of  man — Sneering  and  defiance — The  uncovering  of  the  canine 

tooth  on  one  side  of  the  face 237-252 

CHAP.  XI. — Disdain — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt— Pride,  etc. — 
Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation  and  Negation. 
Contempt,  scorn  and  disdain,  variously  expressed — Derisive  smile — 
Gestures  expressive  of  contempt — Disgust — Guilt,  deceit,  pride,  etc. — 
Helplessness  or  impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — Shrugging  the 
shoulders  common  to  most  of  the  races  of  man — Signs  of  affirmation 
and  negation 253-277 


CONTENTS.  V 

CHAP.  XII. — SuBPBisE — Astonishment— Fkab — Horror. 
Surprise,  astonishment— Elevation  of  the  eyebrows— Opening  the  mouth 
Protrusion  of  the  lips — Gestures  accompanying  surprise — Admira- 
tion—Fear—Terror—Erection of  the  hair— Contraction  of  the  platys- 
ma  muscle— Dilatation  of  the  pupils— Horror— Conclusion. 

Pages  278-306 

CHAP.  XIII. — Self-attention— Shamb—Shyness— Modesty  : 
Blushing. 
Nature  of  a  blush — Inheritance— The  parts  of  the  body  most  affected- 
Blushing  in  the  various  races  of  man— Accompanying  gestures— Con- 
fusion of  mind — Causes  of  blushing — Self-attention,  the  fundamental 
element— Shyness — Shame,  from  broken  moral  laws  and  conventional 
rules — Modesty —Theory  of  blushing— Recapitulation 309-346 

CHAP.  XIV.— Concluding  Remarks  and  Summary. 
The  three  leading  principles  which  have  determined  the  chief  move- 
ments of  expression— Their  inheritance— On  the  part  which  the  will 
and  intention  have  played  in  the  acquirement  of  various  expressions 
— The  instinctive  recognition  of  expression — The  bearing  of  our  sub- 
ject on  the  specific  unity  of  the  races  of  man- On  the  successive  ac- 
quirement of  various  expressions  by  the  progenitors  of  man— The  im- 
portance of  expression — Conclusion 347-366 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fro.  Paok 

1.  Diagram  of  the  muscles  of  the  face,  from  Sir  C.  BelL 24 

2.  "  «  "  Henle 24 

3.  "  ««  "  «     25 

4.  Small  dog  watching  a  cat  on  a  table 43 

6.  Dog  approaching  another  dog  with  hostile  intentions 52 

6.  Dog  in  a  humble  and  affectionate  frame  of  mind 53 

7.  Half-bred  Shepherd  Dog 54 

8.  Dog  caressing  his  master 55 

9.  Cat,  savage,  and  prepared  to  fight 58 

10.  Cat  in  an  affectionate  frame  of  mind 59 

11.  Sound-producing  quills  from  the  tail  of  the  Porcupine 93 

12.  Hen  driving  away  a  dog  from  her  chickens 98 

13.  Swan  driving  away  an  intruder 99 

14-  Head  of  snarling  dog 117 

15.  Cat  terrified  at  a  dog 125 

16.  Cynopithecua  niger,  in  a  placid  condition 135 

17.  The  same,  when  pleased  by  being  caressed 135 

18.  Chimpanzee  disappointed  and  sulky 139 

19.  Photograph  of  an  insane  woman 296 

20.  Terror 299 

21.  Horror  and  Agony 308 


Plate     I.  to  fact  f  age  147. 
"       II.          "  178. 

"     III.         «  200. 

"      IV.  "  248. 


Plate     V.  to  face  frontispiece. 
«       VI.         "  264. 

"     VII.  "  300. 


iV;  B. — Several  of  the  figures  in  these  seven  Heliotype  Plates  have 
been  reproduced  from  photographs,  instead  of  from  the  original  nega- 
tives ;  and  they  are  in  consequence  somewhat  indistinct,  ^(everthele8a 
they  are  faithful  copies,  and  are  much  superior  for  my  purpose  to  any 
drawing,  however  carefully  executed. 

Ti 


OK  THE  EXPEESSION  OF  THE 
EMOTIONS  IN  MAN  AND  ANIMALS. 


INTEODUCTION. 

Many  works  have  been  written  on  Expression,  but  a 
greater  number  on  Physiognomy, — that  is,  on  the  recog- 
nition of  character  through  the  study  of  the  permanent 
form  of  the  features.  With  this  latter  subject  I  am  not 
here  concerned.  The  older  treatises,^  which  I  have  con- 
sulted, have  been  of  little  or  no  service  to  me.  The 
famous  *  Conferences  ^  ^  of  the  painter  Le  Brun,  pub- 
lished in  1667,  is  the  best  known  ancient  work,  and  con- 
tains some  good  remarks.  Another  somewhat  old  essay, 
namely,  the  *  Discours,'  delivered  1774—1782,  by  the 
well-known  Dutch  anatomist  Camper,^  can  hardly  be 
considered  as  having  made  any  marked  advance  in  the 
subject.  The  following  works,  on  the  contrary,  deserve 
the  fullest  consideration. 

Sir  Charles  Bell,  so  illustrious  for  his  discoveries  in 
physiology,  published  in  1806  the  first  edition,  and  in 

^  J.  Parsons,  in  his  paper  in  the  Appendix  to  the  '  Philo- 
sophical Transactions  '  for  1746,  p.  41,  g-ives  a  list  of  forty- 
one  old  authors  who  have  written  on  Expression. 

'  *  Conferences  sur  I'expression  des  different®  Carac- 
teres  des  Passions.'  Paris,  4to,  1667.  I  always  quote 
from  the  republication  of  the  '  Conferences  *  in  the  edition 
of  Lavater,  by  !Moreau,  which  appeared  in  1820,  as  given 
in  vol.  ix.  p.  257. 

•  '  Discours  par  Pierre  Camper  sur  le  moyen  de  repre- 
senter  les  diverses  passions,'  &c.    1792. 

1 


2  INTRODUCTION. 

1844  the  third  edition  of  his  *  Anatomy  and  Philosophy 
of  Expression.'  *  He  may  with  justice  be  said,  not  only 
to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  the  subject  as  a  branch 
of  science,  but  to  have  built  up  a  noble  structure.  His 
work  is  in  every  way  deeply  interesting;  it  includes 
graphic  descriptions  of  the  various  emotions,  and  is  ad- 
mirably illustrated.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  his 
service  consists  chiefly  in  having  shown  the  intimate  rela- 
tion which  exists  between  the  movements  of  expression 
and  those  of  respiration.  One  of  the  most  important 
points,  small  as  it  may  at  first  appear,  is  that  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes  are  involuntarily  contracted  during  violent 
expiratory  efforts,  in  order  to  protect  these  delicate  or- 
gans from  the  pressure  of  the  blood.  This  fact,  which 
has  been  fully  investigated  for  me  with  the  greatest  kind- 
ness by  Professors  Bonders  of  Utrecht,  throws,  as  we  shall 
hereafter  see,  a  flood  of  light  on  several  of  the  most  im- 
portant expressions  of  the  human  countenance.  The 
merits  of  Sir  C.  Bell's  work  have  been  undervalued  or 
quite  ignored  by  several  foreign  writers,  but  have  been 
fully  admitted  by  some,  for  instance  by  M.  Lemoine,* 
who  with  great  justice  says:  — "  Le  livre  de  Ch.  Bell 
devrait  ^tre  medite  par  quiconque  essaye  de  faire  parler 
le  visage  de  I'homme,  par  les  philosophes  aussi  bien  que 
par  les  artistes,  car,  sous  une  apparence  plus  legere  et 
sous  le  pretexts  de  I'esthetique,  c'est  un  des  plus  beaux 
monuments  de  la  science  des  rapports  du  physique  et 
du  moral." 

From  reasons  which  will  presently  be  assigned.  Sir 


*  I  always  quote  from  the  third  edition,  1844,  which 
was  published  after  the  death  of  Sir  C.  Bell,  and  contains 
his  latest  corrections.  The  first  edition  of  1806  is  much 
inferior  in  merit,  and  does  not  include  some  of  his  more 
important  views. 

»  '  De  la  Physionomie  et  de  la  Parole,'  par  Albert  Le- 
moine,  1865,  p.  101. 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

C.  Bell  did  not  attempt  to  follow  out  his  views  as  far  as 
they  might  have  been  carried.  He  does  not  try  to  ex- 
plain why  different  muscles  are  brought  into  action 
under  different  emotions;  why,  for  instance,  the  inner 
ends  of  the  eyebrows  are  raised,  and  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  depressed,  by  a  person  suffering  from  grief  or 
anxiety. 

In  1807  M.  Moreau  edited  an  edition  of  Lavater 
on  Physiognomy,®  in  which  he  incorporated  several  of 
his  own  essays,  containing  excellent  descriptions  of  the 
movements  of  the  facial  muscles,  together  with  many 
valuable  remarks.  He  throws,  however,  very  little  light 
on  the  philosophy  of  the  subject.  For  instance,  M. 
Moreau,  in  speaking  of  the  act  of  frowning,  that  is,  of 
the  contraction  of  the  muscle  called  by  French  writers 
the  sourcilier  {corrugator  snperciUi),  remarks  with 
truth : — "  Cette  action  des  sourciliers  est  un  des  symp- 

®  '  L'Art  de  connaitre  les  Hommes,'  &c.,  par  G,  Lavater. 
The  earliest  edition  of  this  work,  referred  to  in  the  preface 
to  the  edition  of  1820  in  ten  volumes,  as  containing-  the 
observations  of  M.  Moreau,  is  said  to  have  been  published 
in  1807;  and  I  have  no  doubt  that  this  is  correct,  because 
the  '  Notice  sur  Lavater  '  at  the  commencement  of  volume 
i.  is  dated  April  13,  1806.  In  some  bibliographical  works, 
however,  the  date  of  1805—1809  is  g-iven,  but  it  seems  im- 
possible that  1805  can  be  correct.  Dr.  Duchenne  remarks 
('  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  8vo  edit.  1862, 
p.  5,  and  '  Archives  Generales  de  Medecine,'  Jan.  et  Fev. 
1862)  that  iSr.  Moreau  "  a  compose  pour  son  ouvrage  un 
article  iinportant"  &c.,  in  the  year  1805;  and  I  find  in  vol- 
ume i.  of  the  edition  of  1820  passag-es  bearing-  the  dates  of 
December  12,  1805,  and  another  January  5,  1806,  besides 
that  of  April  13,  1806,  above  referred  to.  In  consequence 
of  some  of  these  passages  having  thus  been  composed  in 
1805,  Dr.  Duchenne  assigns  to  M.  Moreau  the  priority  over 
Sir  C.  Bell,  whose  work,  as  w^e  have  seen,  was  published 
in  1806.  This  is  a  very  unusual  manner  of  determining 
the  priority  of  scientific  works;  but  such  questions  are 
of  extremely  little  importance  in  comparison  with  their 
relative  merits.  The  passages  above  quoted  from  M. 
Moreau  and  from  Le  Brun  are  taken  in  this  and  all  other 
cases  from  the  edition  of  1820  of  Lavater,  torn.  iv.  p.  228, 
and  tom.  ix.  p.  279. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

t6mes  les  plus  tranches  de  Texpression  des  affections 
penibles  ou  concentrees."  He  then  adds  that  these 
muscles,  from  their  attachment  and  position,  are  fitted 
"a  resserrer,  a  concentrer  les  principaux  traits  de  Iskface, 
comme  il  convient  dans  toutes  ces  passions  vraiment 
oppressives  ou  profondes,  dans  ces  affections  dont  le 
sentiment  semble  porter  Torganisation  a  revenir  sur 
elle-m^me,  a  se  contracter  et  a  s'^amoindrir^  comme  pour 
offrir  moins  de  prise  et  de  surface  a  des  impressions  re- 
doutables  ou  importunes/*  He  who  thinks  that  remarks 
of  this  kind  throw  any  light  on  the  meaning  or  origin 
of  the  different  expressions,  takes  a  very  different  view 
of  the  subject  to  what  I  do. 

In  the  above  passage  there  is  but  a  slight,  if  any, 
advance  in  the  philosophy  of  the  subject,  beyond  that 
reached  by  the  painter  Le  Brun,  who,  in  1667,  in  de- 
scribing the  expression  of  fright,  says: — "  Le  sourcil 
qui  est  abaisse  d'un  cote  et  eleve  de  I'autre,  fait  voir 
que  la  partie  elevee  semble  le  vouloir  joindre  au  cerveau 
pour  le  garantir  du  mal  que  I'dme  aper9oit,  et  le  c6te 
qui  est  abaisse  et  qui  parait  enfle,  nous  fait  trouver  dans 
cet  etat  par  les  esprits  qui  viennent  du  cerveau  en  abon- 
dance,  comme  pour  couvrir  Tame  et  la  defendre  du  mal 
qu'elle  craint ;  la  bouche  fort  ouverte  fait  voir  le  saisisse- 
ment  du  coeur,  par  le  sang  qui  se  retire  vers  lui,  ce  qui 
I'oblige,  voulant  respirer,  a  faire  un  effort  qui  est  cause 
que  la  bouche  s'ouvre  extremement,  et  qui,  lorsqu'il 
passe  par  les  organes  de  la  voix,  forme  un  son  qui  n'est 
point  articule ;  que  si  les  muscles  et  les  veines  parais- 
sent  enfles,  ce  n'est  que  par  les  esprits  que  le  cerveau 
envoie  en  ces  parties-la."  I  have  thought  the  fore- 
going sentences  worth  quoting,  as  specimens  of  the 
surprising  nonsense  which  has  been  written  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

*  The  Physiology  or  Mechanism  of  Blushing,'  by  Dr. 


INTEODUCTION.  5 

Burgess,  appeared  in  1839,  and  to  this  work  I  shall  fre- 
quently refer  in  my  thirteenth  Chapter. 

In  1862  Dr.  Duchenne  published  two  editions,  in 
folio  and  octavo,  of  his  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie 
Humaine/  in  which  he  analyses  by  means  of  electricity, 
and  illustrates  by  magnificent  photographs,  the  move- 
ments of  the  facial  muscles.  He  has  generously  per- 
mitted me  to  copy  as  many  of  his  photographs  as  I  de- 
sired. His  works  have  been  spoken  lightly  of,  or  quite 
passed  over,  by  some  of  his  countrymen.  It  is  possible 
that  Dr.  Duchenne  may  have  exaggerated  the  impor- 
tance of  the  contraction  of  single  muscles  in  giving  ex- 
pression; for,  owing  to  the  intimate  manner  in  which 
the  muscles  are  connected,  as  may  be  seen  in  Henle's 
anatomical  drawings  ^ — the  best  I  believe  ever  published 
— it  is  difficult  to  believe  in  their  separate  action.  Never- 
theless, it  is  manifest  that  Dr.  Duchenne  clearly  appre- 
hended this  and  other  sources  of  error,  and  as  it  is  known 
that  he  was  eminently  successful  in  elucidating  the 
physiology  of  the  muscles  of  the  hand  by  the  aid  of  elec- 
tricity, it  is  probable  that  he  is  generally  in  the  right 
about  the  muscles  of  the  face.  In  my  opinion.  Dr. 
Duchenne  has  greatly  advanced  the  subject  by  his  treat- 
ment of  it.  No  one  has  more  carefully  studied  the  con- 
traction of  each  separate  muscle,  and  the  consequent 
furrows  produced  on  the  skin.  He  has  also,  and  this  is 
a  very  important  service,  shown  which  muscles  are  least 
under  the  separate  control  of  the  will.  He  enters  very 
little  into  theoretical  considerations,  and  seldom  at- 
tempts to  explain  why  ceri:ain  muscles  and  not  others 
contract  under  the  influence  of  certain  emotions. 

A  distinguished  French  anatomist,  Pierre  Gratiolet, 


^  '  Handbuch  der  Systematischen  Anatomie   des  Men- 
schen.'    Band  I.    Dritte"^Abtheiluiig,  185S. 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

gave  a  course  of  lectures  on  Expression  at  the  Sorbonne, 
and  his  notes  were  published  (1865)  after  his  death, 
under  the  title  of  '  De  la  Physionomie  et  des  Mouve- 
ments  d'Expression.'  This  is  a  very  interesting  work, 
full  of  valuable  observations.  His  theory  is  rather  com- 
plex, and,  as  far  as  it  can  be  given  in  a  single  sentence 
(p.  65),  is  as  follows  : — "  II  resulte,  de  tous  les  faits  que 
j'ai  rappeles,  que  les  sens,  I'imagination  et  la  pensee  elle- 
meme,  si  elevee,  si  abstraite  qu'on  la  suppose,  ne  peu- 
vent  s'exercer  sans  eveiller  un  sentiment  correlatif,  et 
que  ce  sentiment  se  traduit  directement,  sympathique- 
ment,  symboliquement  ou  metaphoriquement,  dans 
toutes  les  spheres  des  organs  exterieurs,  qui  la  racontent 
tous,  suivant  leur  mode  d'action  propre,  comme  si  chacun 
d'eux  avait  ete  directement  affecte." 

Gratiolet  appears  to  overlook  inherited  habit,  and 
even  to  some  extent  habit  in  the  individual;  and  there- 
fore he  fails,  as  it  seems  to  me,  to  give  the  right  explana- 
tion, or  any  explanation  at  all,  of  many  gestures  and  ex- 
pressions. As  an  illustration  of  what  he  calls  symbolic 
movements,  I  will  quote  his  remarks  (p.  37),  taken  from 
M.  Chevreul,  on  a  man  playing  at  billiards.  "  Si  une 
bille  devie  legerement  de  la  direction  que  le  Joueur  pre- 
tend lui  imprimer,  ne  I'avez-vous  pas  vu  cent  fois  la  pous- 
ser  du  regard,  de  la  tete  et  meme  des  epaules,  comme  si 
ces  mouvements,  purement  symboliques,  pouvaient  recti- 
fier son  trajet?  Des  mouvements  non  moins  significatifs 
se  produisent  quand  la  bille  manque  d'une  impulsion 
suffisante.  Et  chez  les  Joueurs  novices,  ils  sont  quelque- 
fois  accuses  au  point  d'eveiller  le  sourire  sur  les  levres 
des  spectateurs."  Such  movements,  as  it  appears  to  me, 
may  be  attributed  simply  to  habit.  As  often  as  a  man 
has  wished  to  move  an  object  to  one  side,  he  has  always 
pushed  it  to  that  side;  when  forwards,  he  has  pushed  it 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

forwards;  and  if  he  has  wished  to  arrest  it,  he  has  pulled 
backwards.  Therefore,  when  a  man  sees  his  ball  travel- 
ling in  a  wrong  direction,  and  he  intensely  wishes  it  to 
go  in  another  direction,  he  cannot  avoid,  from  long  habit, 
unconsciously  performing  movements  which  in  other 
cases  he  has  found  effectual. 

As  an  instance  of  sympathetic  movements  Gratiolet 
gives  (p.  212)  the  following  case : — "  un  jeune  chien  a 
oreilles  droites,  auquel  son  maitre  presente  de  loin  quel- 
que  viande  appetissante,  fixe  avec  ardeur  ses  yeux  sur  cet 
objet  dont  il  suit  tons  les  mouvements,  et  pendant  que 
les  yeux  regardent,  les  deux  oreilles  se  portent  en  avant 
com  me  si  cet  objet  pouvait  dtre  entendu."  Here,  in- 
stead of  speaking  of  sympathy  between  the  ears  and  eyes, 
it  appears  to  me  more  simple  to  believe,  that  as  dogs 
during  many  generations  have,  whilst  intently  looking 
at  any  object,  pricked  their  ears  in  order  to  perceive  any 
sound;  and  conversely  have  looked  intently  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  sound  to  which  they  may  have  listened,  the 
movements  of  these  organs  have  become  firmly  associ- 
ated together  through  long-continued  habit. 

Dr.  Piderit  published  in  1859  an  essay  on  Expression, 
which  I  have  not  seen,  but  in  which,  as  he  states,  he 
forestalled  Gratiolet  in  many  of  his  views.  In  1867 
he  published  his  ^  Wissenschaftliches  System  der  Mimik 
und  Physiognomik.'  It  is  hardly  possible  to  give  in  a 
few  sentences  a  fair  notion  of  his  views;  perhaps  the 
two  following  sentences  will  tell  as  much  as  can  be 
briefly  told:  "the  muscular  movements  of  expression 
are  in  part  related  to  imaginary  objects,  and  in  part  to 
imaginary  sensorial  impressions.  In  this  proposition 
lies  the  key  to  the  comprehension  of  all  expressive  mus- 
cular movements."  (s.  25.)  Again,  "  Expressive  move- 
ments manifest  themselves  chiefly  in  the  numerous  and 
mobile  muscles  of  the  face,  partly  because  the  nerves 


8  INTKUDUCTION. 

by  which  they  are  set  into  motion  originate  in  the  most 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  mind-organ,  but  partly  also 
because  these  muscles  serve  to  support  the  organs  of 
sense."  (s.  26.)  If  Dr.  Piderit  had  studied  Sir  C.  BelFs 
work,  he  would  probably  not  have  said  (s.  101)  that  vio- 
lent laughter  causes  a  frown  from  partaking  of  the  na- 
ture of  pain;  or  that  with  infants  (s.  103)  the  tears  irri- 
tate the  eyes,  and  thus  excite  the  contraction  of  the  sur- 
rounding muscles.  Many  good  remarks  are  scattered 
throughout  this  volume,  to  which  I  shall  hereafter 
refer. 

Short  discussions  on  Expression  may  be  found  in 
various  works,  which  need  not  here  be  particularised. 
Mr.  Bain,  however,  in  two  of  his  works  has  treated  the 
subject  at  some  length.  He  says,*  "  I  look  upon  the 
expression  so-called  as  part  and  parcel  of  the  feeling. 
I  believe  it  to  be  a  general  law  of  the  mind  that,  along 
with  the  fact  of  inward  feeling  or  consciousness,  there 
is  a  diffusive  action  or  excitement  over  the  bodily  mem- 
bers." In  another  place  he  adds,  "  A  very  considerable 
number  of  the  facts  may  be  brought  under  the  following 
principle:  namely,  that  states  of  pleasure  are  connected 
with  an  increase,  and  states  of  pain  with  an  abatement, 
of  some,  or  all,  of  the  vital  functions."  But  the  above 
law  of  the  diffusive  action  of  feelings  seems  too  general 
to  throw  much  light  on  special  expressions. 

Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  in  treating  of  the  Feelings  in 
his  *  Principles  of  Psychology '  (1855),  makes  the  fol- 
lowing remarks: — "  Fear,  when  strong,  expresses  itself 
in  cries,  in  efforts  to  hide  or  escape,  in  palpitations  and 
tremblings;   and  these  are  just  the  manifestations  that 


«  *  The  Senses  and  the  Intellect,'  2nd  edit.  1864,  pp.  96 
and  288.  The  preface  to  the  first  edition  of  this  work  is 
dated  June,  1855.  See  also  the  2nd  edition  of  Mr.  Bain's 
work  on  the  *  Enaotions  and  Will.' 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

would  accompany  an  actual  experience  of  the  evil  feared. 
The  destructive  passions  are  shown  in  a  general  tension 
of  the  muscular  system,  in  gnashing  of  the  teeth  and 
protrusion  of  the  claws,  in  dilated  eyes  and  nostrils* 
in  growls;  and  these  are  weaker  forms  of  the  actions 
that  accompany  the  killing  of  prey/'  Here  we  have, 
as  I  believe,  the  true  theory  of  a  large  number  of  expres- 
sions; but  the  chief  interest  and  difficulty  of  the  subject 
lies  in  following  out  the  wonderfully  complex  results.  I 
infer  that  some  one  (but  who  he  is  I  have  not  been  able 
to  ascertain)  formerly  advanced  a  nearly  similar  view, 
for  Sir  C.  Bell  says,®  "  It  has  been  maintained  that  what 
are  called  the  external  signs  of  passion,  are  only  the  con- 
comitants of  those  voluntary  movements  which  the  struc- 
ture renders  necessary."  Mr.  Spencer  has  also  pub- 
lished ^°  a  valuable  essay  on  the  physiology  of  Laughter, 
in  which  he  insists  on  "  the  general  law  that  feeling 
passing  a  certain  pitch,  habitually  vents  itself  in  bodily 
action;  "  and  that  "  an  overflow  of  nerve-force  undirected 
by  any  motive,  will  manifestly  take  first  the  most 
habitual  routes;  and  if  these  do  not  suffice,  will  next 
overflow  into  the  less  habitual  ones."  This  law  I  believe 
to  be  of  the  highest  importance  in  throwing  light  on  our 
subject.^  ^ 


•  '  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  p.  121. 

^'  '  Essays,  Scientific.  Political,  and  Speculative,'  Second 
Series,  1863,  p.  111.  There  is  a  discussion  on  Laug-hter  in 
the  First  Series  of  Essays,  which  discussion  seems  to  me 
of  very  inferior  value, 

"  Since  the  publication  of  the  essay  just  referred  to, 
Mr.  Spencer  has  written  another,  on  "  Morals  and  Moral 
Sentiments,"  in  the  '  Fortnig-htly  Review,'  April  1,  1871,  p. 
426.  He  has,  also,  now  published  his  final  conclusions  in 
vol.  ii.  of  the  second  edit,  of  the  '  Principles  of  Psychology,* 
1872,  p.  539.  I  may  state,  in  order  that  I  may  not  be  ac- 
cused of  trespassing  on  Mr.  Spencer's  domain,  that  I  an- 
nounced in  my  '  Descent  of  Man,'  that  I  had  then  written 
a  part  of  the  present  volume:  my  first  MS.  notes  on  the 
subject  of  expression  bear  the  date  of  the  year  1838. 

a 


10  INTRODUCTION. 

All  the  authors  who  have  written  on  Expression, 
with  the  exception  of  Mr.  Spencer — the  great  expounder 
of  the  principle  of  Evolution — appear  to  have  been 
firmly  convinced  that  species,  man  of  course  included, 
came  into  existence  in  their  present  condition.  Sir  C. 
Bell,  being  thus  convinced,  maintains  that  many  of 
our  facial  muscles  are  "  purely  instrumental  in  expres- 
sion; "  or  are  "  a  special  provision  "  for  this  sole  ob- 
ject.^- But  the  simple  fact  that  the  anthropoid  apes 
possess  the  same  facial  muscles  as  we  do,^^  renders  it 
very  improbable  that  these  muscles  in  our  case  serve 
exclusively  for  expression;  for  no  one,  I  presume,  would 
be  inclined  to  admit  that  monkeys  have  been  endowed 
with  special  muscles  solely  for  exhibiting  their- hideous 
grimaces.  Distinct  uses,  independently  of  expression, 
can  indeed  be  assigned  with  much  probability  for  almost 
all  the  facial  muscles. 

Sir  C.  Bell  evidently  wished  to  draw  as  broad  a  dis- 
tinction as  possible  between  man  and  the  lower  animals; 
and  he  consequently  asserts  that  with  "  the  lower  crea- 
tures there  is  no  expression  but  what  may  be  referred, 
more  or  less  plainly,  to  their  acts  of  volition  or  neces- 
sary instincts."  He  further  maintains  that  their  faces 
"  seem  chiefly  capable  of  expressing  rage  and  fear."  ^* 
But  man  himself  cannot  express  love  and  humility  by 
external  signs,  so  plainly  as  docs  a  dog,  when  with  droop- 
ing ears,  hanging  lips,  flexuous  body,  and  wagging  tail, 
he  meets  his  beloved  master.    Nor  can  these  movements 

"  *  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  pp.  98,  121,  131. 

"  Professor  Owen  expressly  states  (Proc.  Zoolog".  Soc. 
1830,  p.  28)  that  this  is  the  ease  with  respect  to  the  Oran«r, 
and  specifies  all  the  more  important  muscles  which  are 
well  known  to  serve  with  man  for  the  expression  of  his 
feeling's.  See,  also,  a  description  of  several  of  the  facial 
muscles  in  the  Chimpanzee,  hy  Prof.  Macalister,  in  '  Annals 
and  Mag-azine  of  Natural  History,'  vol.  vii.  May,  1871,  p. 
342. 

"  *  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  pp.  121,  138. 


INTRODUCTION.  H 

in  the  dog  be  explained  by  acts  of  volition  or  necessary 
instincts,  any  more  than  the  beaming  eyes  and  smiling 
cheeks  of  a  man  when  he  meets  an  old  friend.  If  Sir 
C.  Bell  had  been  questioned  about  the  expression  of 
affection  in  the  dog,  he  would  no  doubt  have  answered 
that  this  animal  had  been  created  with  special  instincts, 
adapting  him  for  association  with  man,  and  that  all 
further  enquiry  on  the  subject  was  superfluous. 

Although  Gratiolet  emphatically  denies  ^^  that  any 
muscle  has  been  developed  solely  for  the  sake  of  ex- 
pression, he  seems  never  to  have  reflected  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  evolution.  He  apparently  looks  at  each  species 
as  a  separate  creation.  So  it  is  with  the  other  writers 
on  Expression,  For  instance.  Dr.  Duchenne,  after 
speaking  of  the  movements  of  the  limbs,  refers  to  those 
which  give  expression  to  the  face,  and  remarks:  ^^  "  Le 
createur  n'a  done  pas  eu  a  se  preoccuper  ici  des  besoins 
de  la  mecanique ;  il  a  pu,  selon  sa  sagesse,  ou — que  Ton 
me  pardonne  cette  maniere  de  parler — par  une  divine 
fantaisie,  mettre  en  action  tel  ou  tel  muscle,  un  seul  ou 
plusieurs  muscles  a  la  fois,  lorsqu'il  a  voulu  que  les  signes 
caracteristiques  des  passions,  meme  les  plus  fugaces,  fus- 
sent  ecrits  passagerement  sur  la  face  de  I'homme.  Ce 
langage  de  la  physionomie  une  fois  cree,  il  lui  a  suffi, 
pour  le  rendre  universel  et  immuable,  de  donner  a  tout 
etre  humain  la  faculte  instinctive  d'exprimer  toujours 
ses  sentiments  par  la  contraction  des  memes  muscles." 

Many  writers  consider  the  whole  subject  of  Expres- 
sion as  inexplicable.  Thus  the  illustrious  physiologist 
Miiller,  says,^^  "  The  completely  different  expression  of 

"  •  De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  12,  73. 

"  *  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  8vo  edit, 
p.  .31. 

"  '  Elements  of  Physiology,'  English  translation,  vol. 
il.  p.  934. 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

the  features  in  different  passions  shows  that,  according 
to  the  kind  of  feehng  excited,  entirely  different  groups 
of  the  fibres  of  the  facial  nerve  are  acted  on.  Of  the 
cause  of  this  we  are  quite  ignorant.'^ 

No  doubt  as  long  as  man  and  all  other  animals  are 
viewed  as  independent  creations,  an  effectual  stop  is  put 
to  our  natural  desire  to  investigate  as  far  as  possible 
the  causes  of  Expression.  By  this  doctrine,  anything 
and  everything  can  be  equally  well  explained;  and  it 
has  proved  as  pernicious  with  respect  to  Expression 
as  to  every  other  branch  of  natural  history.  With 
mankind  some  expressions,  such  as  the  bristling  of  the 
hair  under  the  influence  of  extreme  terror,  or  the  un- 
covering of  the  teeth  under  that  of  furious  rage,  can 
hardly  be  understood,  except  on  the  belief  that  man  once 
existed  in  a  much  lower  and  animal-like  condition.  The 
community  of  certain  expressions  in  distinct  though 
allied  species,  as  in  the  movements  of  the  same  facial 
muscles  during  laughter  by  man  and  by  various  mon- 
keys, is  rendered  somewhat  more  intelligible,  if  we  be- 
lieve in  their  descent  from  a  common  progenitor.  He 
who  admits  on  general  grounds  that  the  structure  and 
habits  of  all  animals  have  been  gradually  evolved,  will 
look  at  the  whole  subject  of  Expression  in  a  new  and 
interesting  light. 

The  study  of  Expression  is  difficult,  owing  to  the 
movements  being  often  extremely  slight,  and  of  a  fleet- 
ing nature.  A  difference  may  be  clearly  perceived, 
and  yet  it  may  be  impossible,  at  least  I  have  found  it 
so,  to  state  in  what  the  difference  consists.  When  we 
witness  any  deep  emotion,  our  sympathy  is  so  strongly 
excited,  that  close  observation  is  forgotten  or  rendered 
almost  impossible;  of  which  fact  I  have  had  many  curi- 
ous proofs.  Our  imagination  is  another  and  still  more 
serious  source  of  error;   for  if  from  the  nature  of  the 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

circumstances  we  expect  to  see  any  expression,  we  readily 
imagine  its  presence.  Notwithstanding  Dr.  Duchenne's 
great  experience,  he  for  a  long  time  fancied,  as  he  states, 
that  several  muscles  contracted  under  certain  emotions, 
whereas  he  ultimately  convinced  himself  that  the  move- 
ment was  confined  to  a  single  muscle. 

In  order  to  acquire  as  good  a  foundation  as  possible, 
and  to  ascertain,  independently  of  common  opinion, 
how  far  particular  movements  of  the  features  and 
gestures  are  really  expressive  of  certain  states  of  the 
mind,  I  have  found  the  following  means  the  most  serv- 
iceable. In  the  first  place,  to  observe  infants;  for  they 
exhibit  many  emotions,  as  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks,  "  with 
extraordinary  force;"  whereas,  in  after  life,  some  of 
our  expressions  "cease  to  have  the  pure  and  simple 
source  from  which  they  spring  in  infancy."  ^^ 

In  the  second  place,  it  occurred  to  me  that  the  in- 
sane ought  to  be  studied,  as  they  are  liable  to  the  strong- 
est passions,  and  give  uncontrolled  vent  to  them.  I  had, 
myself,  no  opportunity  of  doing  this,  so  I  applied  to  Dr. 
Maudsley  and  received  from  him  an  introduction  to  Dr. 
J.  Crichton  Browne,  who  has  charge  of  an  immense  asy- 
lum near  Wakefield,  and  who,  as  I  found,  had  already 
attended  to  the  subject.  This  excellent  observer  has 
with  unwearied  kindness  sent  me  copious  notes  and  de- 
scriptions, with  valuable  suggestions  on  many  points; 
and  I  can  hardly  over-estimate  the  value  of  his  assist- 
ance. I  owe  also,  to  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Patrick  Nicol, 
of  the  Sussex  Lunatic  Asylum,  interesting  statements 
on  two  or  three  points. 

Thirdly  Dr.  Duchenne  galvanized,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  certain  muscles  in  the  face  of  an  old  man,  whose 
skin  was  little  sensitive,  and  thus  produced  various  ex- 


"  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  p.  198. 


14  INTRODUCTION. 

pressions  which  were  photographed  on  a  large  scale.  It 
fortunately  occurred  to  me  to  show  several  of  the  best 
plates,  without  a  word  of  explanation,  to  above  twenty 
educated  persons  of  various  ages  and  both  sexes,  asking 
them,  in  each  case,  by  what  emotion  or  feeling  the  old 
man  was  supposed  to  be  agitated;  and  I  recorded  their 
answers  in  the  words  which  they  used.  Several  of  the 
expressions  were  instantly  recognised  by  almost  every- 
one, though  described  in  not  exactly  the  same  terms; 
and  these  may,  I  think,  be  relied  on  as  truthful,  and 
will  hereafter  be  specified.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most 
widely  different  judgments  were  pronounced  in  regard 
to  some  of  them.  This  exhibition  was  of  use  in  another 
way,  by  convincing  me  how  easily  we  may  be  misguided 
by  our  imagination;  for  when  I  first  looked  through 
Dr.  Duchenne's  photographs,  reading  at  the  same  time 
the  text,  and  thus  learning  what  was  intended,  I  was 
struck  with  admiration  at  the  truthfulness  of  all,  with 
only  a  few  exceptions.  Nevertheless,  if  I  had  examined 
them  without  any  explanation,  no  doubt  I  should  have 
been  as  much  perplexed,  in  some  cases,  as  other  persons 
have  been. 

Fourthly,  I  had  hoped  to  derive  much  aid  from  the 
great  masters  in  painting  and  sculpture,  who  are  such 
close  observers.  Accordingly,  I  have  looked  at  photo- 
graphs and  engravings  of  many  well-known  works; 
but,  with  a  few  exceptions,  have  not  thus  profited.  The 
reason  no  doubt  is,  that  in  works  of  art,  beauty  is  the 
chief  object;  and  strongly  contracted  facial  muscles 
destroy  beauty.^^  The  story  of  the  composition  is  gen- 
erally told  with  wonderful  force  and  truth  by  skilfully 
given  accessories. 

Fifthly,  it  seemed  to  me  highly  important  to  ascer- 

"  See  remarks  to  this  effect  in  Lessing's  '  Laocoon,' 
translated  by  W.  Ross,  1836,  p.  19. 


INTRODUCTION.  15 

tain  whether  the  same  expressions  and  gestures  prevail, 
as  has  often  been  asserted  without  much  evidence,  with 
all  the  races  of  mankind,  especially  with  those  who  have 
associated  but  httle  with  Europeans.  ^Yhenever  the 
same  movements  of  the  features  or  body  express  the 
same  emotions  in  several  distinct  races  of  man,  we  may 
infer  with  much  probability,  that  such  expressions  are 
true  ones, — that  is,  are  innate  or  instinctive.  Con- 
ventional expressions  or  gestures,  acquired  by  the  in- 
dividual during  early  life,  would  probably  have  dif- 
fered in  the  different  races,  in  the  same  manner  as  do 
their  languages.  Accordingly  I  circulated,  early  in  the 
year  1867,  the  following  printed  queries  with  a  request, 
which  has  been  fully  responded  to,  that  actual  observa- 
tions, and  not  memory,  might  be  trusted.  These  queries 
were  written  after  a  considerable  interval  of  time,  dur- 
ing which  my  attention  had  been  otherwise  directed, 
and  I  can  now  see  that  they  might  have  been  greatly 
improved.  To  some  of  the  later  copies,  I  appended, 
in  manuscript,  a  few  additional  remarks: — 

(1.)  Is  astonishment  expressed  by  the  eyes  and  mouth 
being  opened  wide,  and  by  the  eyebrows  being 
raised? 

(2.)  Does  shame  excite  a  blush  when  the  colour  of  the 
skin  allows  it  to  be  visible?  and  especially  how 
low  down  the  body  does  the  blush  extend? 

(3.)  When  a  man  is  indignant  or  defiant  does  he  frown, 
hold  his  body  and  head  erect,  square  his  shoulders 
and  clench  his  fists? 

(4.)  When  considering  deeply  on  any  subject,  or  trying 
to  understand  any  puzzle,  does  he  frown,  or 
wrinkle  the  skin  beneath  the  lower  eyelids? 

(5.)  When  in  low  spirits,  are  the  corners  of  the  mouth 
depressed,  and  the  inner  corner  of  the  eyebrows 
raised  by  that  muscle  which  the  French  call  the 
"  Grief  muscle  "  ?  The  eyebrow  in  this  state  be- 
comes slightly  oblique,  with  a  little  swelling  at 
the  inner  end;  and  the  forehead  is  transversely 
wrinkled  in  the  middle  part,  but  not  across  the 
whole  breadth,  as  when  the  eyebrows  are  raised 
in  surprise. 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

(6.)  When  in  good  spirits  do  the  eyes  sparkle,  with  the 
skin  a  little  wrinkled  round  and  under  them,  and 
with  the  mourth  a  little  drawn  back  at  the 
corners  ? 

(7.)  When  a  man  sneers  or  snarls  at  another,  is  the 
corner  of  the  upper  lip  over  the  canine  or  eye 
tooth  raised  on  the  side  facing-  the  man  whom  he 
addresses? 

(8.)  Can  a  dog-g-ed  or  obstinate  expression  be  recog- 
nized, which  is  chiefly  shown  by  the  mouth  being 
firmly  closed,  a  lowering  brow  and  a  slight 
frown  ? 

(9.)  Is  cont-empt  expressed  by  a  slight  protrusion  of 
the  lips  and  by  turning  up  the  nose,  and  with  a 
slight  expiration? 

(10.)  Is  disgust  shown  by  the  lower  lip  being  turned 
down,  the  upper  lip  slightly  raised,  with  a  sud- 
den expiration,  something  like  incipient  vomit- 
ing, or  like  something  spit  out  of  the  mouth? 

(11.)  Is  extreme  fear  expressed  in  the  same  general 
manner  as  with  Europeans? 

(12.)  Is  laughter  ever  carried  to  such  an  extreme  as 
to  bring  tears  into  the  eyes? 

(13.)  When  a  man  wishes  to  show  that  he  cannot  pre- 
vent something  being  done,  or  cannot  himself  do 
something,  does  he  shrug  his  shoulders,  turn  in- 
wards his  elbows,  extend  outwards  his  hands  and 
open  the  palms;    with  the  eyebrows  raised? 

(14.)  Do  the  children  when  sulky,  pout  or  greatly  pro- 
trude the  lips? 

(15.)  Can  guilty,  or  sly,  or  jealous  expressions  be  recog- 
nized? though  I  know  not  how  these  can  be  de- 
fined. 

(16.)  Is  the  head  nodded  vertically  in  affirmation,  and 
shaken  laterally  in  negation? 

Observations  on  natives  who  have  had  little  communi- 
cation with  Europeans  would  be  of  course  the  most  valu- 
able, though  those  made  on  any  natives  would  be  of  much 
interest  to  me.  General  remarks  on  expression  are  of  com- 
paratively little  value;  and  memory  is  so  deceptive  that 
I  earnestly  beg  it  may  not  be  trusted.  A  definite  descrip- 
tion of  the  countenance  under  any  emotion  or  frame  of 
mind,  with  a  statement  of  the  circumstances  under  which 
it  occurred,  would  possess  much  value. 

To  these  queries  I  have  received  thirty-six  answers 
from  different  observers,  several  of  them  missionaries 
or  protectors  of  the  aborigines,  to  all  of  whom  I  am 
deeply  indebted  for  the  great  trouble  which  they  have 
taken,  and  for  the  valuable  aid  thus  received.     I  will 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

specify  their  names,  &c.,  towards  the  close  of  this  chap- 
ter, so  as  not  to  interrupt  my  present  remarks.  The 
answers  relate  to  several  of  the  most  distinct  and  savage 
races  of  man.  In  many  instances,  the  circumstances 
have  been  recorded  under  which  each  expression  was 
observed,  and  the  expression  itself  described.  In  such 
cases,  much  confidence  may  be  placed  in  the  answers. 
When  the  answers  have  been  simply  yes  or  no,  I  have 
always  received  them  with  caution.  It  follows,  from 
the  information  thus  acquired,  that  the  same  state  of 
mind  is  expressed  throughout  the  world  with  remark- 
able uniformity;  and  this  fact  is  in  itself  interesting 
as  evidence  of  the  close  similarity  in  bodily  structure 
and  mental  disposition  of  all  the  races  of  mankind. 

Sixthly,  and  lastly,  I  have  attended,  as  closely  as  I 
could,  to  the  expression  of  the  several  passions  in  some 
of  the  commoner  animals;  and  this  I  believe  to  be  of 
paramount  importance,  not  of  course  for  deciding  how 
far  in  man  certain  expressions  are  characteristic  of 
certain  states  of  mind,  but  as  affording  the  safest  basis 
for  generalisation  on  the  causes,  or  origin,  of  the  various 
movements  of  Expression.  In  observing  animals,  we 
are  not  so  likely  to  be  biassed  by  our  imagination;  and 
we  may  feel  safe  that  their  expressions  are  not  conven- 
tional. 

From  the  reasons  above  assigned,  namely,  the  fleeting 
nature  of  some  expressions  (the  changes  in  the  features 
being  often  extremely  slight);  our  sympathy  being 
easily  aroused  when  we  behold  any  strong  emotion, 
and  our  attention  thus  distracted;  our  imagination  de- 
ceiving us,  from  knowing  in  a  vague  manner  what  to 
expect,  though  certainly  few  of  us  know  what  the  ex- 
act changes  in  the  countenance  are;  and  lastly,  even 
our  long  familiarity  with  the  subject, — from  all  these 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

causes  combined,  the  observation  of  Expression  is  by 
no  means  easy,  as  many  persons,  whom  I  have  asked  to 
observe  certain  points,  have  soon  discovered.  Hence 
it  is  difficult  to  determine,  with  certainty,  what  are  the 
movements  of  the  features  and  of  the  body,  which  com- 
monly characterize  certain  states  of  the  mind.  Never- 
theless, some  of  the  doubts  and  difficulties  have,  as  I 
hope,  been  cleared  away  by  the  observation  of  infants, 
— of  the  insane, — of  the  different  races  of  man, — of 
works  of  art, — and  lastly,  of  the  facial  muscles  under 
the  action  of  galvanism,  as  effected  by  Dr.  Duchenne. 

But  there  remains  the  much  greater  difficulty  of 
understanding  the  cause  or  origin  of  the  several  ex- 
pressions, and  of  judging  whether  any  theoretical  ex- 
planation is  trustworthy.  Besides,  judging  as  well  as 
we  can  by  our  reason,  without  the  aid  of  any  rules,  which 
of  two  or  more  explanations  is  the  most  satisfactory, 
or  are  quite  unsatisfactory,  I  see  only  one  way  of  test- 
ing our  conclusions.  This  is  to  observe  whether  the 
same  principle  by  which  one  expression  can,  as  it  ap- 
pears, be  explained,  is  applicable  in  other  allied  cases; 
and  especially,  whether  the  same  general  principles  can 
be  applied  with  satisfactory  results,  both  to  man  and 
the  lower  animals.  This  latter  method,  I  am  inclined 
to  think,  is  the  most  serviceable  of  all.  The  difficulty 
of  judging  of  the  truth  of  any  theoretical  explanation, 
and  of  testing  it  by  some  distinct  line  of  investigation, 
is  the  great  drawback  to  that  interest  which  the  study 
seems  well  fitted  to  excite. 

Finally,  with  respect  to  my  own  observations,  I  may 
state  that  they  were  commenced  in  the  year  1838;  and 
from  that  time  to  tiie  present  day,  I  have  occasionally 
attended  to  the  subject.  At  the  above  date,  I  was  al- 
ready inclined  to  believe  in  the  principle  of  evolution, 
or  of  the  derivation  of  species    from  othsr  and  lower 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

forms.  Consequently,  when  I  read  Sir  C.  Bell's  great 
work,  his  view,  that  man  had  been  created  with  cer- 
tain muscles  specially  adapted  for  the  expression  of 
his  feelings,  struck  me  as  unsatisfactory.  It  seemed 
probable  that  the  habit  of  expressing  our  feelings  by 
certain  movements,  though  now  rendered  innate,  had 
been  in  some  manner  gradually  acquired.  But  to  dis- 
cover how  such  habits  had  been  acquired  was  perplex- 
ing in  no  small  degree.  The  whole  subject  had  to  be 
viewed  under  a  new  aspect,  and  each  expression  de- 
manded a  rational  explanation.  This  belief  led  me  to 
attempt  the  present  work,  however  imperfectly  it  may 
have  been  executed. 


I  will  now  give  the  names  of  the  gentlemen  to  whom, 
as  I  have  said,  I  am  deeply  indebted  for  information  in 
regard  to  the  expressions  exhibited  by  various  races  of 
man,  and  I  will  specify  some  of  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  observations  were  in  each  case  made.  Owing 
to  the  great  kindness  and  powerful  influence  of  Mr. 
AVilson,  of  Hayes  Place,  Kent,  I  have  received  from 
Australia  no  less  than  thirteen  sets  of  answers  to  my 
queries.  This  has  been  particularly  fortunate,  as  the 
Australian  aborigines  rank  amongst  the  most  distinct  of 
all  the  races  of  man.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  observa- 
tions have  been  chiefly  made  in  the  south,  in  the  out- 
lying parts  of  the  colony  of  Victoria;  but  some  excel- 
lent answers  have  been  received  from  the  north. 

Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  has  given  me  in  detail  some  valu- 
able observations,  made  several  hundred  miles  in  the 
Interior  of  Queensland.  To  Mr.  E.  Brough  Smyth, 
of  Melbourne,  I  am  much  indebted  for  observations  made 
by  himself,  and  for  sending  me  several  of  the  following 
letters,   namely: — From  the  Eev.   Mr.   Hagenauer,   of 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

Lake  Wellington,  a  missionary  in  Gippsland,  Victoria, 
who  has  had  much  experience  with  the  natives.  From 
Mr.  Samuel  Wilson,  a  landowner,  residing  at  Langere- 
nong,  Wimmera,  Victoria.  From  the  Rev.  George  Tap- 
lin,  superintendent  of  the  native  Industrial  Settle- 
ment at  Port  Macleay.  From  Mr.  Archibald  G.  Lang, 
of  Coranderik,  Victoria,  a  teacher  at  a  school  where 
aborigines,  old  and  young,  are  collected  from  all  parts 
of  the  colony.  From  Mr.  H.  B.  Lane,  of  Belfast,  Vic- 
toria, a  pohce  magistrate  and  warden,  whose  observa- 
tions, as  I  am  assured,  are  highly  trustworthy.  From 
Mr.  Templeton  Bunnett,  of  Echuca,  whose  station  is  on 
the  borders  of  the  colony  of  Victoria,  and  who  has  thus 
been  able  to  observe  many  aborigines  who  have  had 
little  intercourse  with  white  men.  He  compared  his 
observations  with  those  made  by  two  other  gentlemen 
long  resident  in  the  neighbourhood.  Also  from  Mr.  J. 
Bulmer,  a  missionary  in  a  remote  part  of  Gippsland, 
Victoria. 

I  am  also  indebted  to  the  distinguished  botanist.  Dr. 
Ferdinand  Mtiller,  of  Victoria,  for  some  observations 
made  by  himself,  and  for  sending  me  others  made  by 
Mrs.  Green,  as  well  as  for  some  of  the  foregoing  letters. 

In  regard  to  the  Maoris  of  New  Zealand,  the  Rev. 
J.  W.  Stack  has  answered  only  a  few  of  my  queries: 
but  the  answers  have  been  remarkably  full,  clear,  and 
distinct,  \\ath  the  circumstances  recorded  under  which 
the  observations  were  made. 

The  Rajah  Brooke  has  given  me  some  information 
with  respect  to  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo. 

Respecting  the  ^lalays,  I  have  been  highly  success- 
ful; for  Mr.  F.  Geach  (to  whom  I  was  introduced  by  Mr. 
Wallace),  during  his  residence  as  a  mining  engineer  in 
the  interior  of  Malacca,  observed  many  natives,  who  had 
never  before  associated  with  white  men.    He  wrote  me 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

two  long  letters  with  admirable  and  detailed  observa- 
tions on  their  expression.  He  likewise  observed  the 
Chinese  immigrants  in  the  Malay  archipelago. 

The  well-known  naturalist,  H.  M.  Consul,  Mr.  Swin- 
hoe,  also  observed  for  me  the  Chinese  in  their  native 
country;  and  he  made  inquiries  from  others  whom  he 
could  trust. 

In  India  Mr.  H.  Erskine,  whilst  residing  in  his  official 
capacity  in  the  Admednugur  District  in  the  Bombay 
Presidency,  attended  to  the  expression  of  the  inhabitants, 
but  found  much  difficulty  in  arriving  at  any  safe  con- 
clusions, owing  to  their  habitual  concealment  of  all 
emotions  in  the  presence  of  Europeans.  He  also  ob- 
tained information  for  me  from  Mr.  West,  the  Judge 
in  Canara,  and  he  consulted  some  intelligent  native 
gentlemen  on  certain  points.  In  Calcutta  Mr.  J.  Scott, 
curator  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  carefully  observed  the 
various  tribes  of  men  therein  employed  during  a  con- 
siderable period,  and  no  one  has  sent  me  such  full  and 
valuable  details.  The  habit  of  accurate  observation, 
gained  by  his  botanical  studies,  has  been  brought  to 
bear  on  our  present  subject.  For  Ceylon  I  am  much 
indebted  to  the  Eev.  S.  0.  Glenie  for  answers  to  some 
of  my  queries. 

Turning  to  Africa,  I  have  been  unfortunate  with 
respect  to  the  negroes,  though  Mr.  Winwood  Keade 
aided  me  as  far  as  lay  in  his  power.  It  would  have  been 
comparatively  easy  to  have  obtained  information  in 
regard  to  the  negro  slaves  in  America;  but  as  they  have 
long  associated  with  white  men,  such  observations  would 
have  possessed  little  value.  In  the  southern  parts  of 
the  continent  Mrs.  Barber  observed  the  Kafirs  and 
Fingoes,  and  sent  me  many  distinct  answers.  Mr.  J.  P. 
Mansel  Weale  also  made  some  observations  on  the  na- 
tives, and  procured  for  me  a  curious  document,  namely, 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

the  opinion,  written  in  English,  of  Christian  Gaika, 
brother  of  the  Chief  Sandilli,  on  the  expressions  of  his 
fellow-countrymen.  In  the  northern  regions  of  Africa 
Captain  Speedy,  who  long  resided  with  the  Abyssinians, 
answered  my  queries  partly  from  memory  and  partly 
from  observations  made  on  the  son  of  King  Theodore, 
who  was  then  under  his  charge.  Professor  and  Mrs. 
Asa  Gray  attended  to  some  points  in  the  expressions  of 
the  natives,  as  observed  by  them  whilst  ascending  the 
Nile. 

On  the  great  American  continent  Mr.  Bridges,  a 
catechist  residing  with  the  Fuegians,  answered  some 
few  questions  about  their  expression,  addressed  to  him 
many  years  ago.  In  the  northern  half  of  the  conti- 
nent Dr.  Eothrock  attended  to  the  expressions  of  the 
wild  Atnah  and  Espyox  tribes  on  the  Nasse  Eiver,  in 
North-Western  America.  Mr.  Washington  Matthews, 
Assistant-Surgeon  in  the  United  States  Army,  also  ob- 
served with  special  care  (after  having  seen  my  queries, 
as  printed  in  the  ^  Smithsonian  Report ')  some  of  the 
wildest  tribes  in  the  Western  parts  of  the  United  States, 
namely,  the  Tetons,  Grosventres,  Mandans,  and  Assina- 
boines;  and  his  answers  have  proved  of  the  highest 
value. 

Lastly,  besides  these  special  sources  of  information,  I 
have  collected  some  few  facts  incidentally  given  in  books 
of  travels. 


As  I  shall  often  have  to  refer,  more  especially  in  the 
latter  part  of  this  volume,  to  the  muscles  of  the  human 
face,  I  have  had  a  diagram  (fig.  1)  copied  and  reduced 
from  Sir  C.  Bell's  work,  and  two  others,  with  more  ac- 
curate details  (figs.  2  and  3),  from  Henle's  well-known 
*Handbuch  der  Systematischen  Anatomic  des  Menschen/ 
The  same  letters  refer  to  the  same  muscles  in  all  three 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

figures,  but  the  names  are  given  of  only  the  more  im- 
portant ones  to  which  I  shall  have  to  allude.  The  facial 
muscles  blend  much  together,  and,  as  I  am  informed, 
hardly  appear  on  a  dissected  face  so  distinct  as  they  are 
here  represented.  Some  writers  consider  that  these 
muscles  consist  of  nineteen  pairs,  with  one  unpaired;  ^^ 
but  others  make  the  number  much  larger,  amounting 
even  to  fifty-five,  according  to  Moreau.  They  are,  as  is 
admitted  by  everyone  who  has  written  on  the  subject, 
very  variable  in  structure;  and  Moreau  remarks  that 
they  are  hardly  alike  in  half-a-dozen  subjects.^^  They 
are  also  variable  in  function.  Thus  the  power  of  un- 
covering the  canine  tooth  on  one  side  differs  much  in 
different  persons.  The  power  of  raising  the  wings  of 
the  nostrils  is  also,  according  to  Dr.  Piderit,^^  variable 
in  a  remarkable  degree;  and  other  such  cases  could  be 
given. 

Finally,  I  must  have  the  pleasure  of  expressing  my 
obligations  to  Mr.  Eejlander  for  the  trouble  which  he 
has  taken  in  photographing  for  me  various  expressions 
and  gestures.  I  am  also  indebted  to  Herr  Kindermann, 
of  Hamburg,  for  the  loan  of  some  excellent  negatives  of 
crying  infants;  and  to  Dr.  Wallich  for  a  charming  one 
of  a  smiling  girl.  I  have  already  expressed  my  obliga- 
tions  to  Dr.  Duchenne  for  generously  permitting  me  to 
have  some  of  his  large  photographs  copied  and  reduced. 
All  these  photographs  have  been  printed  by  the  Helio- 
type  process,  and  the  accuracy  of  the  copy  is  thus  guar- 
anteed. These  plates  are  referred  to  by  Roman  numerals. 

I  am  also  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  T.  W.  Wood  fop 

^  Mt.  Partridg-e  in  Todd's  '  Cyclopaedia  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology,'  vol.  ii.  p.  227, 

*^  '  La  Physionomie,'  par  G.  Lavater,  torn.  iv.  1820,  p. 
274.  On  the  number  of  the  facial  muscles,  see  vol.  iv.  pp, 
209-211. 

"  '  Mimik  und  Physio^omik,'  1867,  s.  91. 


24 


INTRODUCTION. 


Pig.  1.— Diagram  of  the  muBcles  of  the  face,  from  Sir  C.  Bell. 


Fig.  2.— Diagram  from  Henle. 


INTRODUCTION. 


25 


Pie.  3,— Diagram  from  Henle. 


A.  Occipito-f rontalLs,  or  frontal  mus- 
cle. 

B.  Corrugator  eupercilii,  or  corruga- 
tor  muscle. 

C.  OrbiculariB  palpebrarum,  or  or- 
bicular muecles  of  the  eyes. 

D.  Pyramidalifi  nasi,  or  pyramidal 
muscle  of  the  nose. 

E.  Levator  l«bii  euperioris   alaeque 
nasi. 


F.  Levator  labii  proprius. 

G.  Zygomatic. 
H.  Malaris. 

I.  Little  zygomatic. 

K.  Triangularis  oris,  or  depressor 
anguli  oris, 

L.  Quadratus  menti. 

M.  Risorius,  part  of  the  Platysma 
myoides. 


the  extreme  pains  which  he  has  taken  in  drawing  from 
life  the  expressions  of  various  animals.  A  distinguished 
artist,  Mr.  Riviere,  has  had  the  kindness  to  give  me  two 
drawings  of  dogs — one  in  a  hostile  and  the  other  in  a 
humble  and  caressing  frame  of  mind.  Mr.  A.  May  has 
also  given  me  two  similar  sketches  of  dogs.  Mr.  Cooper 
has  taken  much  care  in  cutting  the  blocks.  Some  of 
3 


2Q  INTRODUCTION. 

the  photographs  and  drawings,  namely,  those  by  Mr. 
May,  and  those  by  Mr.  Wolf  of  the  Cynopithecus,  were 
first  reproduced  by  Mr.  Cooper  on  wood  by  means  of 
photography,  and  then  engraved:  by  this  means  almost 
complete  fidelity  is  ensured. 


CHAPTER  I. 
General  Principles  of  Expression. 

The  three  chief  principles  stated — The  first  principle — 
Serviceable  actions  become  habitual  in  association 
with  certain  states  of  the  mind,  and  are  performed 
whether  or  not  of  service  in  each  particular  case — 
The  force  of  habit — Inheritance — Associated  habitual 
movements  in  man — Reflex  actions — Passage  of  habits 
into  reflex  actions — Associated  habitual  movements  in 
the  lower  animals — Concluding  remarks. 

I  WILL  begin  by  giving  the  three  Principles,  which 
appear  to  me  to  account  for  most  of  the  expressions 
and  gestures  involuntarily  used  by  man  and  the  lower 
animals,  under  the  influence  of  various  emotions  and 
sensations.^  I  arrived,  however,  at  these  three  Prin- 
ciples only  at  the  close  of  my  observations.  They  will 
be  discussed  in  the  present  and  two  following  chapters 
in  a  general  manner.  Facts  observed  both  with  man 
and  the  lower  animals  will  here  be  made  use  of;  but 
the  latter  facts  are  preferable,  as  less  likely  to  deceive 
us.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  chapters,  I  will  describe 
the  special  expressions  of  some  of  the  lower  animals; 
and  in  the  succeeding  chapters  those  of  man.  Every- 
one will  thus  be  able  to  judge  for  himself,  how  far  my 


^  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  ('  Essays,'  Second  Series,  1863, 
p.  138)  has  drawn  a  clear  distinction  between  emotions 
and  sensations,  the  latter  being-  "  generated  in  our  cor- 
poreal framework."  He  classes  as  Feelings  both  emotions 
and  sensations. 

27 


28  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  Chap.  I 

three  principles  throw  light  on  the  theory  of  the  sub- 
ject. It  appears  to  me  that  so  many  expressions  are 
thus  explained  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  manner,  that 
probably  all  will  hereafter  be  found  to  come  under  the 
same  or  closely  analogous  heads.  I  need  hardly  pre- 
mise that  movements  or  changes  in  any  part  of  the 
body, — as  the  wagging  of  a  dog's  tail,  the  drawing  back 
of  a  horse's  ears,  the  shrugging  of  a  man's  shoulders, 
or  the  dilatation  of  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  skin, — 
may  all  equally  well  serve  for  expression.  The  three 
Principles  are  as  follows. 

I.  The  principle  of  se7'viceable  associated  Halits. — 
Certain  complex  actions  are  of  direct  or  indirect  serv- 
ice under  certain  states  of  the  mind,  in  order  to  relieve 
or  gratify  certain  sensations,  desires,  &c.;  and  when- 
ever the  same  state  of  mind  is  induced,  however  feebly, 
there  is  a  tendency  through  the  force  of  habit  and  asso- 
ciation for  the  same  movements  to  be  performed,  though 
they  may  not  then  be  of  the  least  use.  Some  actions 
ordinarily  associated  through  habit  with  certain  states 
of  the  mind  may  be  partially  repressed  through  the 
will,  and  in  such  cases  the  muscles  which  are  least  under 
the  separate  control  of  the  will  are  the  most  liable  still 
to  act,  causing  movements  which  we  recognize  as  expres- 
sive. In  certain  other  cases  the  checking  of  one  habitual 
movement  requires  other  slight  movements;  and  these 
are  likewise  expressive. 

II.  TJie  principle  of  Antithesis. — Certain  states  of 
the  mind  lead  to  certain  habitual  actions,  which  are  of 
service,  as  under  our  first  principle.  Now  when  a  direct- 
ly opposite  state  of  mind  is  induced,  there  is  a  strong  and 
involuntary  tendency  to  the  performance  of  movements 
of  a  directly  opposite  nature,  though  these  are  of  no 
use;  and  such  movements  are  in  some  cases  highly  ex- 
pressive. 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  29 

III.  The  principle  of  actions  due  to  the  constitution 
of  the  Nervous  System^  independently  from  the  first  of 
the  Will-,  and  independently  to  a  certain  extent  of  Habit, 
— When  the  sensorium  is  strongly  excited,  nerve-force 
is  generated  in  excess,  and  is  transmitted  in  certain 
definite  directions,  depending  on  the  connection  of  the 
nerve-cells,  and  partly  on  habit:  or  the  supply  of  nerve- 
force  may,  as  it  appears,  be  interrupted.  Effects  are  thus 
produced  which  we  recognize  as  expressive.  This  third 
principle  may,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  be  called  that  of 
the  direct  action  of  the  nervous  system. 

With  respect  to  our  first  Principle,  it  is  notorious 
how  powerful  is  the  force  of  habit.  The  most  complex 
and  difficult  movements  can  in  time  be  performed  with- 
out the  least  effort  or  consciousness.  It  is  not  posi- 
tively known  how  it  comes  that  habit  is  so  efficient 
in  facilitating  complex  movements;  but  physiologists 
admit  ^  "  that  the  conducting  power  of  the  nervous 
fibres  increases  with  the  frequency  of  their  excitement." 
This  applies  to  the  nerves  of  motion  and  sensation,  as 
well  as  to  those  connected  with  the  act  of  thinking. 
That  some  physical  change  is  produced  in  the  nerve-cells 
or  nerves  which  are  habitually  used  can  hardly  be  doubt- 
ed, for  otherwise  it  is  impossible  to  understand  how  the 
tendency  to  certain  acquired  movements  is  inherited. 
That  they  are  inherited  we  see  with  horses  in  certain 
transmitted  paces,  such  as  cantering  and  ambling,  which 
are  not  natural  to  them, — ^in  the  pointing  of  young 
pointers  and  the  setting  of  young  setters — in  the  peculiar 

*  Miiller,  '  Elements  of  Physiologfy,'  Eng-.  translat.  vol. 
ii.  D.  939.  See  also  Mr.  H.  Spencer's  interesting-  specula- 
tions on  the  same  subject,  and  on  the  g-enesis  of  nerves, 
in  his  '  i^rinciples  of  Biology,'  vol.  ii.  p.  346;  and  in  his 
*  Principles  of  Psychology,'  2nd  edit.  pp.  511-557. 


30  THE  PRINCIPLE  OP  Chap.  I. 

manner  of  flight  of  certain  breeds  of  the  pigeon,  &e. 
We  have  analogous  cases  with  mankind  in  the  inheritance 
of  tricks  or  unusual  gestures,  to  which  we  shall  presently 
recur.  To  those  who  admit  the  gradual  evolution  of 
species,  a  most  striking  instance  of  the  perfection  with 
which  the  most  difficult  consensual  movements  can  be 
transmitted,  is  afforded  by  the  humming-bird  Sphinx- 
moth  [Macroglossa)  ;  for  this  moth,  shortly  after  its 
emergence  from  the  cocoon,  as  shown  by  the  bloom  on  its 
unrulfled  scales,  may  be  seen  poised  stationary  in  the 
air,  with  its  long  hair-like  proboscis  uncurled  and 
inserted  into  the  minute  orifices  of  flowers;  and  no 
one,  I  believe,  has  ever  seen  this  moth  learning  to 
perform  its  difiicult  task,  which  requires  such  uner- 
ring aim. 

When  there  exists  an  inherited  or  instinctive  tend- 
ency to  the  performance  of  an  action,  or  an  inherited 
taste  for  certain  kinds  of  food,  some  degree  of  habit 
in  the  individual  is  often  or  generally  requisite.  We 
find  this  in  the  paces  of  the  horse,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
in  the  pointing  of  dogs;  although  some  young  dogs  point 
excellently  the  first  time  they  are  taken  out,  yet  they 
often  associate  the  proper  inherited  attitude  with  a 
wrong  odour,  and  even  with  eyesight.  I  have  heard 
it  asserted  that  if  a  calf  be  allowed  to  suck  its  mother 
only  once,  it  is  much  more  difficult  afterwards  to  rear 
it  by  hand.^  Caterpillars  which  have  been  fed  on  the 
leaves  of  one  kind  of  tree,  have  been  known  to  perish 
from  hunger  rather  than  to  eat  the  leaves  of  another 
tree,  although  this  afforded    them  their  proper  food, 

'  A  remark  to  much  the  same  effect  was  made  long  ag-o 
by  Hippocrates  and  by  the  illustrious  Harvey;  for  both 
assert  that  a  young-  animal  forgets  in  the  course  of  a  *c\v 
days  the  art  of  sucking,  and  cannot  without  some  diffi- 
culty again  acquire  it.  I  give  these  assertions  on  the  au- 
thority of  Dr.  Darwin,  '  Zoonomia,'  1794,  vol.  i.  p.  140. 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  31 

under  a  state  of  nature;  *    and  so  it  is  in  many  other 
cases. 

The  power  of  Association  is  admitted  by  everyone. 
Mr.  Bain  remarks,  that  "  actions,  sensations  and  states 
of  feeling,  occurring  together  or  in  close  succession, 
tend  to  grow  together,  or  cohere,  in  such  a  way  that 
when  any  one  of  them  is  afterwards  presented  to  the 
mind,  the  others  are  apt  to  be  brought  up  in  idea."  ^ 
It  is  so  important  for  our  purpose  fully  to  recognize  that 
actions  readily  become  associated  with  other  actions 
and  with  various  states  of  the  mind,  that  I  will  give  a 
good  many  instances,  in  the  first  place  relating  to  man, 
and  afterwards  to  the  lower  animals.  Some  of  the  in- 
stances are  of  a  very  trifling  nature,  but  they  are  as  good 
for  our  purpose  as  more  important  habits.  It  is  known 
to  everyone  how  difficult,  or  even  impossible  it  is,  with- 
out repeated  trials,  to  move  the  limbs  in  certain  opposed 
directions  which  have  never  been  practised.  Analogous 
cases  occur  with  sensations,  as  in  the  common  experiment 
of  rolling  a  marble  beneath  the  tips  of  two  crossed  fin- 
gers, when  it  feels  exactly  like  two  marbles.  Everyone 
protects  himself  when  falling  to  the  ground  by  extend- 
ing his  arms,  and  as  Professor  Alison  has  remarked,  few 
can  resist  acting  thus,  when  voluntarily  falling  on  a 
soft  bed.  A  man  when  going  out  of  doors  puts  on  his 
gloves  quite  unconsciously;  and  this  may  seem  an  ex- 
tremely simple  operation,  but  he  who  has  taught  a  child 

*  See  for  my  authorities,  and  for  various  analogous 
facts,  '  The  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Do- 
mestication,' 1868,  vol.  ii.  p.  304. 

^  '  The  Senses  and  the  Intellect,'  2nd  edit.  1864,  p.  332. 
Prof.  Huxley  remarks  ('  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physi- 
ology,' 5th  edit.  1872,  p.  306),  "  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a 
rule,  that,  if  any  two  mental  states  be  called  up  together, 
or  in  succession,  with  due  frequency  and  vividness,  the 
subsequent  production  of  the  one  of  them  will  suffice  to 
call  up  the  other,  and  that  whether  we  desire  it  or  not." 


32  THE  PRINCIPLE  OP  Chap.  L 

to  put  on  gloves,  knows  that  this  is  by  no  means  the 
case. 

When  our  minds  are  much  affected,  so  are  the  move- 
ments of  our  bodies;  but  here  another  principle  be- 
sides habit,  namely  the  undirected  overflow  of  nerve- 
force,  partially  comes  into  play.  Norfolk,  in  speaking 
of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  says — 

"  Some  strange  commotion 
Is  in  his  brain;   he  bites  his  lip  and  starts; 
Stops  on  a  sudden,  looks  upon  the  ground, 
Then,  lays  his  fing-er  on  his  temple:    straight, 
Springs  out  into  fast  gait;    then,  stops  again, 
Strikes  his  breast  hard;    and  anon,  he  casts 
His  eye  against  the  moon:    in  most  strange  postures 
We  have  seen  him  set  himself." — Hen.  VIII.,  act  3,  sc.  2. 

A  vulgar  man  often  scratches  his  head  when  per- 
plexed in  mind;  and  I  believe  that  he  acts  thus  from 
habit,  as  if  he  experienced  a  slightly  uncomfortable 
bodily  sensation,  namely,  the  itching  of  his  head,  to 
which  he  is  particularly  liable,  and  which  he  thus  re- 
lieves. Another  man  rubs  his  eyes  when  perplexed,  or 
gives  a  little  cough  when  embarrassed,  acting  in  either 
case  as  if  he  felt  a  slightly  uncomfortable  sensation  in 
his  eyes  or  windpipe.^ 

From  the  continued  use  of  the  eyes,  these  organs 
are  especially  liable  to  be  acted  on  through  association 
under  various  states  of  the  mind,  although  there  is  mani- 
festly nothing  to  be  seen.  A  man,  as  Gratiolet  remarks, 
who  vehemently  rejects  a  proposition,  will  almost  cer- 
tainly shut  his  eyes  or  turn  away  his  face;  but  if  he 
accepts  the  proposition,  he  will  nod  his  head  in  affirma- 
tion and  open  his  eyes  widely.     The  man  acts  in  this 


•  Gratiolet  (' De  la  Physionomie,*  p.  324),  in  his  discus- 
sion on  this  subject,  gives  many  analogous  instances. 
See  p.  42,  on  the  opening  and  shutting  of  the  eyes.  Engel 
is  quoted  (p.  323)  on  the  changed  paces  of  a  man,  as  his 
thoughts  change. 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  33 

latter  case  as  if  he  clearly  saw  the  thing,  and  in  the 
former  case  as  if  he  did  not  or  would  not  see  it.  I 
have  noticed  that  persons  in  describing  a  horrid  sight 
often  shut  their  eyes  momentarily  and  firmly,  or  shake 
their  heads,  as  if  not  to  see  or  to  drive  away  some- 
thing disagreeable;  and  I  have  caught  myself,  when 
thinking  in  the  dark  of  a  horrid  spectacle,  closing 
my  eyes  firmly.  In  looking  suddenly  at  any  object, 
or  in  looking  all  around,  everyone  raises  his  eyebrows, 
so  that  the  eyes  may  be  quickly  and  widely  opened; 
and  Duchenne  remarks  that  ^  a  person  in  trying  to  re- 
member something  often  raises  his  eyebrows,  as  if  to 
see  it.  A  Hindoo  gentleman  made  exactly  the  same 
remark  to  Mr.  Erskine  in  regard  to  his  countrymen. 
I  noticed  a  young  lady  earnestly  tning  to  recollect  a 
painter's  name,  and  she  first  looked  to  one  corner  of 
the  ceiling  and  then  to  the  opposite  corner,  arching 
the  one  eyebrow  on  that  side;  although,  of  course,  there 
was  nothing  to  be  seen  there. 

In  most  of  the  foregoing  cases,  we  can  understand 
how  the  associated  movements  were  acquired  through 
habit;  but  with  some  individuals,  certain  strange  gestures 
or  tricks  have  arisen  in  association  with  certain  states  of 
the  mind,  owing  to  wholly  inexplicable  causes,  and  are 
undoubtedly  inherited.  I  have  elsewhere  given  one 
instance  from  my  own  observation  of  an  extraordinary 
and  complex  gesture,  associated  with  pleasurable  feel- 
ings, which  was  transmitted  from  a  father  to  his 
daughter,    as    well    as    some    other    analogous    facts.^ 


^  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  1862,  p.  17. 

'  '  The  Variation  of  Animals  and  Plants  under  Domesti- 
cation,' vol.  ii.  p.  6.  The  inheritance  of  habitual  g-estures 
is  so  important  for  us,  that  I  g-ladly  avail  myself  of  Mr. 
F.  Galton's  permission  to  give  in  his  ow^n  words  the  follow- 
ing- remarkable  case: — "The  following  account  of  a  habit 
occurring"  in  individuals  of  three  consecutive  generations 


34:  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  Chap.  L 

Another  curious  instance  of  an  odd  inherited  move- 
ment, associated  with  the  wish  to  obtain  an  object,  will 
be  given  in  the  course  of  this  volume. 

There  are  other  actions  which  are  commonly  per- 
formed under  certain  circumstances,  independently  of 
habit,  and  which  seem  to  be  due  to  imitation  or  some 
sort  of  sympathy.    Thus  persons  cutting  anything  with 


is  of  peculiar  interest,  because  it  occurs  only  during  sound 
sleep,  and  therefore  cannot  be  due  to  imitation,  but  must 
be  altogether  natural.  The  particulars  are  perfectly  trust- 
worthy, for  I  have  enquired  fully  into  them,  and  speak 
from  abundant  and  independent  evidence.  A  gentleman 
of  considerable  position  was  found  by  his  wife  to  have  the 
curious  trick,  when  he  lay  fast  asleep  on  his  back  in  bed, 
of  raising  his  right  arm  slowly  in  front  of  his  face,  up  to 
his  forehead,  and  then  dropping  it  with  a  jerk,  so  that 
the  wrist  fell  heavily  on  the  bridge  of  his  nose.  The  trick 
did  not  occur  every  night,  but  occasionally,  and  was  in- 
dependent of  an3'  ascertained  cause.  Sometimes  it  was 
repeated  incessantly  for  an  hour  or  more.  The  gentle- 
man's nose  was  prominent,  and  its  bridge  often  became 
sore  from  the  blows  which  it  received.  At  one  time  an 
awkward  sore  was  produced,  that  was  long  in  healing, 
on  account  of  the  recurrence,  night  aft«r  night,  of  the 
blows  which  first  caused  it.  His  wife  had  to  remove  the 
button  from  the  wrist  of  his  night-gown  as  it  made  severe 
scratches,  and  some  means  were  attempted  of  tying  his 
arm. 

"  Many  years  after  his  death,  his  son  married  a  lady 
who  had  never  heard  of  the  family  incident.  She,  how- 
ever, observed  precisely  the  same  peculiarity  in  her  hus- 
band; but  his  nose,  from  not  being  particularly  promi- 
nent, has  never  as  yet  suffered  from  the  blows.  The  trick 
does  not  occur  when  he  is  half-asleep,  as,  for  example, 
when  dozing  in  his  arm-chair,  but  the  moment  he  is  fast 
asleep  it  is  apt  to  begin.  It  is,  as  %vith  his  father,  inter- 
mittent; sometimes  ceasing  for  many  nights,  and  some- 
times almost  incessant  during  a  part  of  every  night.  It 
is  performed,  as  it  was  by  his  father,  with  his  right  hand. 

"  One  of  his  children,  a  girl,  has  inherited  the  same 
trick.  She  performs  it,  likewise,  with  the  right  hand,  but 
in  a  slightly  modified  form;  for,  after  raising  the  arm, 
she  does  not  allow  the  wrist  to  drop  upon  the  bridge  of  the 
nose,  but  the  palm  of  the  half-closed  hand  falls  over  and 
down  the  nose,  striking  it  rather  rapidly.  It  is  also  very  in- 
termittent with  this  child,  not  occurring  for  periods  of  some 
months,  but  sometimes  occurring  almost  incessantly." 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  35 

a  pair  of  scissors  may  be  seen  to  move  their  jaws  simul- 
taneously with  the  blades  of  the  scissors.  Children 
learning  to  write  often  twist  about  their  tongues  as 
their  fingers  move,  in  a  ridiculous  fashion.  When  a 
public  singer  suddenly  becomes  a  little  hoarse,  many 
of  those  present  may  be  heard,  as  I  have  been  assured 
by  a  gentleman  on  whom  I  can  rely,  to  clear  their 
throats;  but  here  habit  probably  comes  into  play,  as  we 
clear  our  own  throats  under  similar  circumstances. 
I  have  also  been  told  that  at  leaping  matches,  as  the 
performer  makes  his  spring,  many  of  the  spectators, 
generally  men  and  boys,  move  their  feet;  but  here 
again  habit  probably  comes  into  play,  for  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  women  would  thus  act. 

Reflex  actions. — Reflex  actions,  in  the  strict  sense  of 
the  term,  are  due  to  the  excitement  of  a  peripheral 
nerve,  which  transmits  its  influence  to  certain  nerve- 
cells,  and  these  in  their  turn  excite  certain  muscles  or 
glands  into  action;  and  all  this  may  take  place  without 
any  sensation  or  consciousness  on  our  part,  though  often 
thus  accompanied.  As  many  reflex  actions  are  highly 
expressive,  the  subject  must  here  be  noticed  at  some 
little  length.  ^Ye  shall  also  see  that  some  of  them 
graduate  into,  and  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
actions  which  have  arisen  through  habit.^  Coughing 
and  sneezing  are  familiar  instances  of  reflex  actions. 
With  infants  the  first  act  of  respiration  is  often  a  sneeze, 
although  this  requires  the  co-ordinated  movement  of 

*  Prof.  Huxley  remarks  ('  Elementary  Physiolog-y,'  5th 
edit.  p.  305)  that  reflex  actions  proper  to  the  spinal  cord 
are  natural;  but,  by  the  help  of  the  brain,  that  is  through 
habit,  an  infinity  of  artiffcial  reflex  actions  may  be  acr 
quired.  Virchow  admits  ('  Sammlung  wissenschaft.  Vor- 
triig-e,'  &c.,  "  Ueber  das  Riickenmark,"  1871,  ss.  24,  31) 
that  some  reflex  actions  can  hardly  be  disting-uished  from 
instincts;  and,  of  the  latter,  it  may  be  added,  some  cannot 
be  distinguished  from  inherited  habits. 


36  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  Chap.  L 

numerous  muscles.  Kespiration  is  partly  voluntary,  but 
mainly  reflex,  and  is  performed  in  the  most  natural  and 
best  manner  without  the  interference  of  the  will.  A  vast 
number  of  complex  movements  are  reflex.  As  good  an 
instance  as  can  be  given  is  the  often-quoted  one  of  a 
decapitated  frog,  which  cannot  of  course  feel,  and  cannot 
consciously  perform,  any  movement.  Yet  if  a  drop  of 
acid  be  placed  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  thigh  of  a 
frog  in  this  state,  it  will  rub  off  the  drop  with  the  upper 
surface  of  the  foot  of  the  same  leg.  If  this  foot  be  cut 
off,  it  cannot  thus  act.  "  After  some  fruitless  efforts, 
therefore,  it  gives  up  trying  in  that  way,  seems  restless, 
as  though,  says  Pfluger,  it  was  seeking  some  other  way, 
and  at  last  it  makes  use  of  the  foot  of  the  other  leg  and 
succeeds  in  rubbing  off  the  acid.  Notably  we  have  here 
not  merely  contractions  of  muscles,  but  combined  and 
harmonized  contractions  in  due  sequence  for  a  special 
purpose.  These  are  actions  that  have  all  the  appear- 
ance of  being  guided  by  intelligence  and  instigated  by 
will  in  an  animal,  the  recognized  organ  of  whose  intelli- 
gence and  will  has  been  removed."  ^° 

We  see  the  difference  between  reflex  and  voluntary 
movements  in  very  young  children  not  being'  able  to 
perform,  as  I  am  informed  by  Sir  Henry  Holland,  cer- 
tain acts  somewhat  analogous  to  those  of  sneezing  and 
coughing,  namely,  in  their  not  being  able  to  blow  their 
noses  (i.  e.  to  compress  the  nose  and  blow  violently 
through  the  passage),  and  in  their  not  being  able  to  clear 
their  throats  of  phlegm.  They  have  to  learn  to  perform 
these  acts,  yet  they  are  performed  by  us,  when  a  little 
older,  almost  as  easily  as  reflex  actions.  Sneezing  and 
coughing,  however,  can  be  controlled  by  the  will  only 
partially  or  mot  at  all;    whilst  the  clearing  the  throat 

"  Dr.  Maudsley,  '  Body  and  Mind,'  1870,  p.  8. 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  37 

and  blowing  the  nose  are  completely  under  our  com- 
mand. 

When  we  are  conscious  of  the  presence  of  an  irritating 
particle  in  our  nostrils  or  windpipe — that  is,  when  the 
same  sensory  nerv^e-cells  are  excited,  as  in  the  case  of 
sneezing  and  coughing — we  can  voluntarily  expel  the 
particle  by  forcibly  driving  air  through  these  passages; 
but  we  cannot  do  this  with  nearly  the  same  force, 
rapidity,  and  precision,  as  by  a  reflex  action.  In  this 
latter  case  the  sensory  nerve-cells  apparently  excite 
the  motor  nerve-cells  without  any  waste  of  power  by 
first  communicating  with  the  cerebral  hemispheres — the 
seat  of  our  consciousness  and  volition.  In  all  cases 
there  seems  to  exist  a  profound  antagonism  between  the 
same  movements,  as  directed  by  the  will  and  by  a  reflex 
stimulant,  in  the  force  with  which  they  are  performed 
and  in  the  facility  with  which  they  are  excited.  As 
Claude  Bernard  asserts,  "  L'influence  du  cerveau  tend 
done  a  entraver  les  mouvements  reflexes,  a  limiter  leur 
force  et  leur  etendue."  ^^ 

The  conscious  wish  to  perform  a  reflex  action  some- 
times stops  or  interrupts  its  performance,  though  the 
proper  sensory  nerves  may  be  stimulated.  For  in- 
stance, many  years  ago  I  laid  a  small  wager  with  a  dozen 
young  men  that  they  would  not  sneeze  if  they  took 
snuff,  although  they  all  declared  that  they  invariably 
did  so;  accordingly  they  all  took  a  pinch,  but  from 
wishing  much  to  succeed,  not  one  sneezed,  though  their 
eyes  watered,  and  all,  without  exception,  had  to  pay 
me  the  wager.  Sir  H.  Holland  remarks  ^^  that  atten- 
tion paid  to  the  act  of  swallowing  interferes  with  the 
proper   movements;   from   which  it   probably   follows, 

"  See  the  very  interesting-  discussion  on  the  whole  sub- 
ject by  Claude  Bernard,  '  Tissus  Vivants,'  1866,  p.  353-356. 
"  'Chapters  on  Mental  Physiolog-y,'  1858,  p.  85. 


38  THE  PRINCIPLE   OF  Chap.  I. 

at  least  in  part,  that  some  persons  find  it  so  difficult  to 
swallow  a  pill. 

x\nother  familiar  instance  of  a  reflex  action  is  the 
involuntary  closing  of  the  eyelids  when  the  surface  of 
the  eye  is  touched.  A  similar  winking  movement  is 
caused  when  a  blow  is  directed  towards  the  face;  but 
this  is  an  habitual  and  not  a  strictly  reflex  action,  as 
the  stimulus  is  conveyed  through  the  mind  and  not  by 
the  excitement  of  a  peripheral  nerve.  The  whole  body 
and  head  are  generally  at  the  same  time  drawn  suddenly 
backwards.  These  latter  movements,  however,  can  be 
prevented,  if  the  danger  does  not  appear  to  the  imagi- 
nation imminent;  but  our  reason  telling  us  that  there 
is  no  danger  does  not  suffice.  I  may  mention  a  trifling 
fact,  illustrating  this  point,  and  which  at  the  time 
amused  me.  I  put  my  face  close  to  the  thick  glass- 
plate  in  front  of  a  puff-adder  in  the  Zoological  Gardens, 
with  the  firm  determination  of  not  starting  back  if  the 
snake  struck  at  me;  but,  as  soon  as  the  blow  was  struck, 
my  resolution  went  for  nothing,  and  I  jumped  a  yard  or 
two  backwards  with  astonishing  rapidity.  My  will  and 
reason  were  powerless  against  the  imagination  of  a 
danger  which  had  never  been  experienced. 

The  violence  of  a  start  seems  to  depend  partly  on  the 
vividness  of  the  imagination,  and  partly  on  the  con- 
dition, either  habitual  or  temporary,  of  the  nervous 
system.  He  who  will  attend  to  the  starting  of  his  horse, 
when  tired  and  fresh,  will  perceive  how  perfect  is  the 
gradation  from  a  mere  glance  at  some  unexpected  ob- 
ject, with  a  momentary  doubt  whether  it  is  dangerous, 
to  a  jump  so  rapid  and  violent,  that  the  animal  probably 
could  not  voluntarily  whirl  round  in  so  rapid  a  man- 
ner. The  nervous  system  of  a  fresh  and  highly-fed 
horse  sends  its  order  to  the  motory  system  so  quickly, 
that  no  time  is  allowed  for  him  to  consider  whether 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  39 

or  not  the  danger  is  real.  After  one  violent  start,  when 
he  is  excited  and  the  blood  flows  freely  through  his 
brain,  he  is  very  apt  to  start  again;  and  so  it  is,  as  I  have 
noticed,  with  young  infants. 

A  start  from  a  sudden  noise,  when  the  stimulus  is 
conveyed  through  the  auditory  nerves,  is  always  accom- 
panied in  grown-up  persons  by  the  winking  of  the  eye- 
lids.^^  I  observed,  however,  that  ftiough  my  infants 
started  at  sudden  sounds,  when  under  a  fortnight  old, 
they  certainly  did  not  always  wink  their  eyes,  and  I  be- 
lieve never  did  so.  The  start  of  an  older  infant  appar- 
ently represents  a  vague  catching  hold  of  something  to 
prevent  falling.  I  shook  a  pasteboard  box  close  before 
the  eyes  of  one  of  my  infants,  when  114  days  old,  and 
it  did  not  in  the  least  wink;  but  when  I  put  a  few 
comfits  into  the  box,  holding  it  in  the  same  position  as 
before,  and  rattled  them,  the  child  blinked  its  eyes 
violently  every  time,  and  started  a  little.  It  was  ob- 
viously impossible  that  a  carefully-guarded  infant  could 
have  learnt  by  experience  that  a  rattling  sound  near  its 
eyes  indicated  danger  to  them.  But  such  experieilce 
will  have  been  slowly  gained  at  a  later  age  during  a 
long  series  of  generations;  and  from  what  w^e  know 
of  inheritance,  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the 
transmission  of  a  habit  to  the  offspring  at  an  earUer 
age  than  that  at  which  it  was  first  acquired  by  the 
parents. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  it  seems  probable  that 
some  actions,  which  were  at  first  performed  consciously, 
have  become  through  habit  and  association  converted 
into  reflex  actions,  and  are  now  so  firmly  fixed  and  in- 
herited, that  they  are  performed,  even  when  not  of  the 

"  Miiller  remarks  ('  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng-.  tr. 
vol.  ii.  p.  1311)  on  starting  being  always  accompanied 
by  the  closure  of  the  eyelids. 


40  THE  PRINCIPLE  OP  Chap.  L 

least  use/*  as  often  as  the  same  causes  arise,  which 
originally  excited  them  in  us  through  the  volition.  In 
such  cases  the  sensory  nerve-cells  excite  the  motor  cells, 
Avithout  first  communicating  with  those  cells  on  which 
our  consciousness  and  volition  depend.  It  is  probable 
that  sneezing  and  coughing  were  originally  acquired  by 
the  habit  of  expelling,  as  violently  as  possible,  any  irri- 
tating particle  from  the  sensitive  air-passages.  As  far 
as  time  is  concerned,  there  has  been  more  than  enough 
for  these  habits  to  have  become  innate  or  converted  into 
reflex  actions;  for  they  are  common  to  most  or  all  of  the 
higher  quadrupeds,  and  must  therefore  have  been  first 
acquired  at  a  very  remote  period.  Why  the  act  of  clear- 
ing the  throat  is  not  a  reflex  action,  and  has  to  be  leamt 
by  our  children,  I  cannot  pretend  to  say;  but  we  can 
see  why  blowing  the  nose  on  a  handkercliief  has  to  be 
learnt. 

It  is  scarcely  credible  that  the  movements  of  a  head- 
less frog,  when  it  wipes  off  a  drop  of  acid  or  other  object 
from  its  thigh,  and  which  movements  are  so  well  co- 
ordinated for  a  special  purpose,  were  not  at  first  per- 
formed voluntarily,  being  afterwards  rendered  easy 
through  long-continued  habit  so  as  at  last  to  be  per- 
formed unconsciously,  or  independently  of  the  cerebral 
hemispheres. 

So  again  it  appears  probable  that  starting  was 
originally  acquired  by  the  habit  of  jumping  away  as 
quickly  as  possible  from  danger,  whenever  any  of  our 
senses  gave  us  warning.  Starting,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
accompanied  by  the  blinking  of  the  eyelids  so  as  to 
protect  the  eyes,  the  most  tender  and  sensitive  organs 

"  Dr.  Maudsley  remarks  (*  Body  and  Mind,*  p.  10)  that 
"  reflex  movements  which  commonly  effect  a  useful  end 
may,  under  the  changed  circumstances  of  disease,  do  great 
mischief,  becoming  even  the  occasion  of  violent  suffering 
and  of  a  most  painful  death." 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  41 

of  the  body;  and  it  is,  I  believe,  always  accompanied 
by  a  sudden  and  forcible  inspiration,  which  is  the 
natural  preparation  for  any  violent  effort.  But  when 
a  man  or  horse  starts,  his  heart  beats  wildly  against 
his  ribs,  and  here  it  may  be  truly  said  we  have  an  organ 
which  has  never  been  under  the  control  of  the  will,, 
partaking  in  the  general  reflex  movements  of  the  body. 
To  this  point,  however,  I  shall  return  in  a  future 
chapter. 

The  contraction  of  the  iris,  when  the  retina  is  stimu- 
lated by  a  bright  light,  is  another  instance  of  a  move- 
ment, which  it  appears  cannot  possibly  have  been  at 
first  voluntarily  performed  and  then  fixed  by  habit; 
for  the  iris  is  not  known  to  be  under  the  conscious 
control  of  the  will  in  any  animal.  In  such  cases  some 
explanation,  quite  distinct  from  habit,  will  have  to  be 
discovered.  The  radiation  of  nerve-force  from  strongly- 
excited  nerve-cells  to  other  connected  cells,  as  in  the 
case  of  a  bright  light  on  the  retina  causing  a  sneeze,  may 
perhaps  aid  us  in  understanding  how  some  reflex  actions 
originated.  A  radiation  of  nerve-force  of  this  kind,  if 
it  caused  a  movement  tending  to  lessen  the  primary  irri- 
tation, as  in  the  case  of  the  contraction  of  the  iris  pre- 
venting too  much  light  from  falling  on  the  retina,  might 
afterwards  have  been  taken  advantage  of  and  modified 
for  this  special  purpose. 

It  further  deserves  notice  that  reflex  actions  are  in 
all  probability  liable  to  slight  variations,  as  are  all 
corporeal  structures  and  instincts;  and  any  variations 
which  were  beneficial  and  of  sufficient  importance,  would 
tend  to  be  preserved  and  inherited.  Thus  reflex  actions, 
when  once  gained  for  one  purpose,  might  afterwards 
be  modified  independently  of  the  will  or  habit,  so  as  to 
serve  for  some  distinct  purpose.  Such  cases  would  be 
parallel  with  those  which,  as  we  have  every  reason  to 
4 


42  THE  PRINCIPLE  OP  Chap.  L 

believe,  have  occurred  with  many  instincts;  for  al- 
though some  instincts  have  been  developed  simply 
through  long-continued  and  inherited  habit,  other 
highly  complex  ones  have  been  developed  through  the 
preservation  of  variations  of  pre-existing  instincts — that 
is,  through  natural  selection. 

I  have  discussed  at  some  little  length,  though  as  I 
am  well  aware,  in  a  very  imperfect  manner,  the  acquire- 
ment of  reflex  actions,  because  they  are  often  brought 
into  play  in  connection  with  movements  expressive  of 
our  emotions;  and  it  was  necessary  to  show  that  at  least 
some  of  them  might  have  been  first  acquired  through 
the  will  in  order  to  satisfy  a  desire,  or  to  reUeve  a  dis- 
agreeable sensation. 

Associated  hahitual  movements  in  the  lower  animals, 
— I  have  already  given  in  the  case  of  Man  several  in- 
stances of  movements  associated  with  various  states 
of  the  mind  or  body,  which  are  now  purposeless,  but 
which  were  originally  of  use,  and  are  still  of  use  under 
certain  circumstances.  As  this  subject  is  very  impor- 
tant for  us,  I  will  here  give  a  considerable  number  of 
analogous  facts,  with  reference  to  animals;  although 
many  of  them  are  of  a  very  trifling  nature.  My  ob- 
ject is  to  show  that  certain  movements  were  originally 
performed  for  a  definite  end,  and  that,  under  nearly 
the  same  circumstances,  they  are  still  pertinaciously  per- 
formed through  habit  when  not  of  the  least  use.  That 
the  tendency  in  most  of  the  following  cases  is  inherited, 
we  may  infer  from  such  actions  being  performed  in  the 
same  manner  by  all  the  individuals,  young  and  old,  of 
the  same  species.  We  shall  also  see  that  they  are  excited 
by  the  most  diversified,  often  circuitous,  and  sometimes 
mistaken  associations. 

Dogs,  when  they  wish  to  go  to  sleep  on  a  carpet  or 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  43 

other  hard  surface,  generally  turn  round  and  round  and 
scratch  the  ground  with  their  fore-paws  in  a  senseless 
manner,  as  if  they  intended  to  trample  down  the  grass 
and  scoop  out  a  hollow,  as  no  doubt  their  wild  parents 
did,  when  they  lived  on  open  grassy  plains  or  in  the 
woods.  Jackals,  fennecs,  and  other  allied  animals  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens,  treat  their  straw  in  this  man- 
ner; but  it  is  a  rather  odd  circumstance  that  the  keepers, 
after  observing  for  some  months,  have  never  seen  the 
wolves  thus  behave.  A  semi-idiotic  dog — and  an  ani- 
mal in  this  condition  would  be  particularly  liable  to 
follow  a  senseless  habit — was  observed  by  a  friend  to 
turn  completely  round  on  a  carpet  thirteen  times  before 
going  to  sleep. 

Many  carnivorous  animals,  as  they  crawl  towards 
their  prey  and  prepare  to  rush  or  spring  on  it,  lower  their 
heads  and  crouch,  partly,  as  it  would  appear,  to  hide 
themselves,  and  partly  to  get  ready  for  their  rush;  and 
this  habit  in  an  exaggerated  form  has  become  heredi- 
tary in  our  pointers  and  setters.  Now  I  have  noticed 
scores  of  times  that  when  two  strange  dogs  meet  on  an 
open  road,  the  one  which  first  sees  the  other,  though 
at  the  distance  of  one  or 
two  hundred  yards,  after 
the  first  glance  always 
lowers  its  head,  generally 
crouches  a  little,  or  even 
lies  down;  that  is,  he 
takes  the  proper  attitude 
for  concealing  himself  and 

for      making      a      rush      or    Fig.  4.— Small  dog  watching  a  cat  on  a 
li-L  1     XI.  J  table.     From  a  photograph  taken 

spring,    although    the    road  by  Mr.  Rejiander 

is  quite  open  and  the  dis- 
tance great.     Again,  dogs  of  all  kinds  when  intently 
watching  and  slowly  approaching  their  prey,  frequently 


44  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  Chap.  I. 

keep  one  of  their  fore-legs  doubled  up  for  a  long  time, 
ready  for  the  next  cautious  step;  and  this  is  eminently 
characteristic  of  the  pointer.  But  from  habit  they  be- 
have in  exactly  the  same  manner  whenever  their  atten- 
tion is  aroused  (fig.  4).  I  have  seen  a  dog  at  the  foot  of 
a  high  wall,  Hstening  attentively  to  a  sound  on  the  oppo- 
site side,  with  one  leg  doubled  up;  and  in  this  case  there 
could  have  been  no  intention  of  making  a  cautious  ap- 
proach. 

Dogs  after  voiding  their  excrement  often  make  with 
all  four  feet  a  few  scratches  backwards,  even  on  a  bare 
stone  pavement,  as  if  for  the  purpose  of  covering  up 
their  excrement  with  earth,  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
as  do  cats.  Wolves  and  jackals  behave  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens  in  exactly  the  same  manner,  yet,  as  I 
am  assured  by  the  keepers,  neither  wolves,  jackals,  nor 
foxes,  when  they  have  the  means  of  doing  so,  ever  cover 
up  their  excrement,  any  more  than  do  dogs.  All  these 
animals,  however,  bury  superfluous  food.  Hence,  if  we 
rightly  understand  the  meaning  of  the  above  cat-like 
habit,  of  which  there  can  be  little  doubt,  we  have  a 
purposeless  remnant  of  an  habitual  movement,  which 
was  originally  followed  by  some  remote  progenitor  of 
the  dog-genus  for  a  definite  purpose,  and  which  has 
been  retained  for  a  prodigious  length  of  time. 

Dogs  and  jackals  ^^  take  much  pleasure  in  rolling 
and  rubbing  their  necks  and  backs  on  carrion.  The 
odour  seems  delightful  to  them,  though  dogs  at  least 
do  not  eat  carrion.  Mr.  Bartlett  has  observed  wolves 
for  me,  and  has  given  them  carrion,  but  has  never  seen 
them  roll  on  it.  I  have  heard  it  remarked,  and  I  be- 
lieve it  to  be  true,  that  the  larger  dogs,  which  are  prob- 
ably descended    from  wolves,  do    not  so  often  roll  in 

"  See  Mr.  F.  H.  Salvin's  account  of  a  tame  jackal  in 
*  Land  and  Water,'  October,  1869. 


Chap.  I.     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  45 

carrion  as  do  smaller  dogs,  which  are  probably  descended 
from  jackals.  When  a  piece  of  brown  biscuit  is  offered 
to  a  terrier  of  mine  and  she  is  not  hungry  (and  I  have 
heard  of  similar  instances),  she  first  tosses  it  about  and 
worries  it,  as  if  it  were  a  rat  or  other  prey;  she  then 
repeatedly  rolls  on  it  precisely  as  if  it  were  a  piece  of 
carrion,  and  at  last  eats  it.  It  would  appear  that  an 
imaginary  relish  has  to  be  given  to  the  distasteful 
morsel;  and  to  effect  this  the  dog  acts  in  his  habitual 
manner,  as  if  the  biscuit  was  a  live  animal  or  smelt 
like  carrion,  though  he  knows  better  than  we  do  that 
this  is  not  the  case.  I  have  seen  this  same  terrier 
act  in  the  same  manner  after  killing  a  little  bird  or 
mouse. 

Dogs  scratch  themselves  by  a  rapid  movement  of  one 
of  their  hind-feet;  and  when  their  backs  are  rubbed 
with  a  stick,  so  strong  is  the  habit,  that  they  cannot 
help  rapidly  scratching  the  air  or  the  ground  in  a  use- 
less and  ludicrous  manner.  The  terrier  just  alluded  to, 
when  thus  scratched  with  a  stick,  will  sometimes  show 
her  delight  by  another  habitual  movement,  namely,  by 
Hcking  the  air  as  if  it  were  my  hand. 

Horses  scratch  themselves  by  nibbling  those  parts  of 
their  bodies  which  they  can  reach  with  their  teeth; 
but  more  commonly  one  horse  shows  another  where  he 
wants  to  be  scratched,  and  they  then  nibble  each  other. 
A  friend  whose  attention  I  had  called  to  the  subject, 
observed  that  when  he  rubbed  his  horse's  neck,  the 
animal  protruded  his  head,  uncovered  his  teeth,  and 
moved  his  jaws,  exactly  as  if  nibbling  another  horse's 
neck,  for  he  could  never  have  nibbled  his  own  neck.  If 
a  horse  is  much  tickled,  as  when  curry-combed,  his  wish 
to  bite  something  becomes  so  intolerably  strong,  that  he 
will  clatter  his  teeth  together,  and  though  not  vicious, 
bite  his  groom.    At  the  same  time  from  habit  he  closely 


46  THE  PRINCIPLE   OF  Chap.  L 

depresses  his  ears,  so  as  to  protect  them  from  being 
bitten,  as  if  he  were  fighting  with  another  horse. 

A  horse  when  eager  to  start  on  a  journey  makes  the 
nearest  approach  which  he  can  to  the  habitual  move- 
ment of  progression  by  pawing  the  ground.  Now  when 
horses  in  their  stalls  are  about  to  be  fed  and  are  eager 
for  their  corn,  they  paw  the  pavement  or  the  straw. 
Two  of  my  horses  thus  behave  when  they  see  or  hear 
the  corn  given  to  their  neighbours.  But  here  we  have 
what  may  almost  be  called  a  true  expression,  as  pawing 
the  ground  is  universally  recognized  as  a  sign  of  eager- 
ness. 

Cats  cover  up  their  excrements  of  both  kinds  with 
earth;  and  my  grandfather  ^^  saw  a  kitten  scraping 
ashes  over  a  spoonful  of  pure  water  spilt  on  the  hearth; 
so  that  here  an  habitual  or  instinctive  action  was  falsely 
excited,  not  by  a  previous  act  or  by  odour,  but  by  eye- 
sight. It  is  well  known  that  cats  dislike  wetting  their 
feet,  owing,  it  is  probable,  to  their  having  aboriginally  in- 
habited the  dry  country  of  Egypt;  and  when  they  wet 
their  feet  they  shake  them  violently.  My  daughter 
poured  some  water  into  a  glass  close  to  the  head  of  a 
kitten;  and  it  immediately  shook  its  feet  in  the  usual 
manner;  so  that  here  we  have  an  habitual  movement 
falsely  excited  by  an  associated  sound  instead  of  by  the 
sense  of  touch. 

Kittens,  puppies,  young  pigs  and  probably  many 
other  young  animals,  alternately  push  with  their  fore- 
feet against  the  mammary  glands  of  their  mothers,  to 
excite  a  freer  secretion  of  milk,  or  to  make  it  flow.  IN'ow 
it  is  very  common  with  young  cats,  and  not  at  all  rare 
with  old  cats  of  the  common  and  Persian  breeds  (be- 

"  Dr.  Darwin,  *  Zoonomia,*  1794,  vol.  i.  p.  160.  I  find  that 
the  fact  of  cats  protruding-  their  feet  when  pleased  is  also 
noticed  (p.  151)  in  this  work. 


Chap.  L     SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  47 

lieved  by  some  naturalists  to  be  specifically  extinct), 
when  comfortably  lying  on  a  warm  shawl  or  other  soft 
substance,  to  pound  it  quietly  and  alternately  with  their 
fore-feet;  their  toes  being  spread  out  and  claws  slightly 
protruded,  precisely  as  when  sucking  their  mother. 
That  it  is  the  same  movement  is  clearly  shown  by  their 
often  at  the  same  time  taking  a  bit  of  the  shawl  into 
their  mouths  and  sucking  it;  generally  closing  their 
eyes  and  purring  from  delight.  This  curious  move- 
ment is  commonly  excited  only  in  association  with  the 
sensation  of  a  warm  soft  surface;  but  I  have  seen  an 
old  cat,  when  pleased  by  having  its  back  scratched, 
pounding  the  air  with  its  feet  in  the  same  manner;  so 
that  this  action  has  almost  become  the  expression  of  a 
pleasurable  sensation. 

Having  referred  to  the  act  of  sucking,  I  may  add 
that  this  complex  movement,  as  well  as  the  alternate 
protrusion  of  the  fore-feet,  are  reflex  actions;  for  they 
are  performed  if  a  finger  moistened  with  milk  is  placed 
in  the  mouth  of  a  puppy,  the  front  part  of  whose  brain 
has  been  removed.^^  It  has  recently  been  stated  in 
France,  that  the  action  of  sucking  is  excited  solely 
through  the  sense  of  smell,  so  that  if  the  olfactory  nerves 
of  a  puppy  are  destroyed,  it  never  sucks.  In  like  man- 
ner the  wonderful  power  which  a  chicken  possesses  only 
a  few  hours  after  being  hatched,  of  picking  up  small 
particles  of  food,  seems  to  be  started  into  action  through 
the  sense  of  hearing;  for  with  chickens  hatched  by  arti- 
ficial heat,  a  good  observer  found  that  "  making  a  noise 
with  the  finger-nail  against  a  board,  in  imitation  of 
the  hen-mother,  first  taught  them  to  peck  at  their 
meat."  ^^ 

"  Carpenter,  '  Principles  of  Comparative  Physiolog-y,' 
1854,  p.  690,  and  Miiller's  *  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng. 
translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  936, 

"  Mov^rbray  on  '  Poultry,'  6th  edit.  1830,  p.  54. 


48  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  Chap.  L 

I  will  give  only  one  other  instance  of  an  habitual 
and  purposeless  movement.  The  Sheldrake  {Tadorria) 
feeds  on  the  sands  left  uncovered  by  the  tide,  and  when 
a  worm-cast  is  discovered,  "  it  begins  patting  the  ground 
with  its  feet,  dancing  as  it  were,  over  the  hole; ''  and  this 
makes  the  worm  come  to  the  surface.  Now  Mr.  St.  John 
says,  that  when  his  tame  Sheldrakes  "  came  to  ask  for 
food,  they  patted  the  ground  in  an  impatient  and  rapid 
manner."  ^^  This  therefore  may  almost  be  considered 
as  their  expression  of  hunger.  Mr.  Bartlett  informs 
me  that  the  Flamingo  and  the  Kagu  (Ehinochetus 
juhatus)  when  anxious  to  be  fed,  beat  the  ground  with 
their  feet  in  the  same  odd  manner.  So  again  King- 
fishers, when  they  catch  a  fish,  always  beat  it  until  it  is 
killed;  and  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  they  always  beat 
the  raw  meat,  with  which  they  are  sometimes  fed,  before 
devouring  it. 

We  have  now,  I  think,  sufficiently  shown  the  truth 
of  our  first  Principle,  namely,  that  when  any  sensation, 
desire,  dislike,  (tc,  has  led  during  a  long  series  of  gen- 
erations to  some  voluntary  movement,  then  a  tendency 
to  the  performance  of  a  similar  movement  will  almost 
certainly  be  excited,  whenever  the  same,  or  any  anal- 
ogous or  associated  sensation  &c.,  although  very  weak, 
is  experienced;  notwithstanding  that  the  movement  in 
this  case  may  not  be  of  the  least  use.  Such  habitual 
movements  are  often,  or  generally  inherited;  and  they 
then  differ  but  little  from  reflex  actions.  When  we  treat 
of  the  special  expressions  of  man,  the  latter  part  of  our 
first  Principle,  as  given  at  the  commencement  of  this 
chapter,  will  be  seen  to  hold  good;  namely,  that  when 
movements,  associated  through  habit  with  certain  states 

"  See  the  account  g-iven  by  this  excellent  observer  in 
*  Wild  Sports  of  the  Highlands,'  1846,  p.  142. 


Chap.  I.    SERVICEABLE  ASSOCIATED  HABITS.  49 

of  the  mind,  are  partially  repressed  by  the  will,  the 
strictly  involuntary  muscles,  as  well  as  those  which  are 
least  under  the  separate  control  of  the  will,  are  liable 
still  to  act;  and  their  action  is  often  highly  expressive. 
Conversely,  when  the  will  is  temporarily  or  permanently 
weakened,  the  voluntary  muscles  fail  before  the  involun- 
tary. It  is  a  fact  familiar  to  pathologists,  as  Sir  C.  Bell 
remarks,^®  "  that  when  debility  arises  from  affection  of 
the  brain,  the  influence  is  greatest  on  those  muscles  wliich 
are,  in  their  natural  condition,  most  under  the  command 
of  the  will."  We  shall,  also,  in  our  future  chapters,  con- 
sider another  proposition  included  in  our  first  Principle; 
namely,  that  the  checking  of  one  habitual  movement 
sometimes  requires  other  slight  movements;  these  latter 
serving  as  a  means  of  expression. 

•»  *  Philosophical  Translations,*  1823,  p.  182. 


CHAPTEE    II. 

General  Principles  of  Expression — continued. 

The  Principle  of  Antithesis — Instances  in  the  dog*  and  cat 
— Orig"in  of  the  principle — Conventional  signs — The 
principle  of  antithesis  has  not  arisen  from  opposite 
actions  being  consciously  performed  under  opposite  im- 
pulses. 

We  will  now  consider  our  second  Principle,  that  of 
Antithesis.  Certain  states  of  the  mind  lead,  as  we  have 
seen  in  the  last  chapter,  to  certain  habitual  movements 
which  were  primarily,  or  may  still  be,  of  service;  and 
we  shall  find  that  when  a  directly  opposite  state  of  mind 
is  induced,  there  is  a  strong  and  involuntary  tendency 
to  the  performance  of  movements  of  a  directly  opposite 
nature,  though  these  have  never  been  of  any  service. 
A  few  striking  instances  of  antithesis  will  be  given, 
when  we  treat  of  the  special  expressions  of  man;  but 
as,  in  these  cases,  we  are  particularly  liable  to  confound 
conventional  or  artificial  gestures  and  expressions  with 
those  which  are  innate  or  universal,  and  which  alone 
deserve  to  rank  as  true  expressions,  I  will  in  the  present 
chapter  almost  confine  myself  to  the  lower  animals. 

When  a  dog  approaches  a  strange  dog  or  man  in  a 
savage  or  hostile  frame  of  mind  he  walks  upright  and 
very  stifily;  his  head  is  slightly  raised,  or  not  much 
lowered;  the  tail  is  held  erect  and  quite  rigid;  the  hairs 
bristle,  especially  along  the  neck  and  back;  the  pricked 

50 


Chap.il      the  principle  of  antithesis.  51 

ears  are  directed  forwards,  and  the  eyes  have  a  fixed 
stare:  (see  figs.  5  and  7).  These  actions,  as  will  hereafter 
be  explained,  follow  from  the  dog's  intention  to  attack 
his  enemy,  and  are  thus  to  a  large  extent  intelligible. 
As  he  prepares  to  spring  with  a  savage  growl  on  his 
enemy,  the  canine  teeth  are  uncovered,  and  the  ears  are 
pressed  close  backwards  on  the  head;  but  with  these 
latter  actions,  we  are  not  here  concerned.  Let  us  now 
suppose  that  the  dog  suddenly  discovers  that  the  man  he 
is  approaching,  is  not  a  stranger,  but  his  master;  and  let 
it  be  observed  how  completely  and  instantaneously  his 
whole  bearing  is  reversed.  Instead  of  walking  up- 
right, the  body  sinks  downwards  or  even  crouches,  and 
is  thrown  into  fiexuous  movements;  his  tail,  instead  of 
being  held  stift'  and  upright,  is  lowered  and  wagged  from 
side  to  side;  his  hair  instantly  becomes  smooth;  his 
ears  are  depressed  and  drawn  backwards,  but  not  closely 
to  the  head;  and  his  lips  hang  loosely.  From  the  draw- 
ing back  of  the  ears,  the  eyelids  become  elongated,  and 
the  eyes  no  longer  appear  round  and  staring.  It  should 
be  added  that  the  animal  is  at  such  times  in  an  excited 
condition  from  joy;  and  nerve-force  will  be  generated 
in  excess,  which  naturally  leads  to  action  of  some  kind. 
Not  one  of  the  above  movements,  so  clearly  expressive 
of  affection,  are  of  the  least  direct  service  to  the  animal. 
They  are  explicable,  as  far  as  I  can  see,  solely  from  being 
in  complete  opposition  or  antithesis  to  the  attitude  and 
movements  which,  from  intelligible  causes,  are  assumed 
when  a  dog  intends  to  fight,  and  which  consequently 
are  expressive  of  anger.  I  request  the  reader  to  look 
at  the  four  accompanjdng  sketches,  which  have  been 
given  in  order  to  recall  vividly  the  appearance  of  a  dog 
under  these  two  states  of  mind.  It  is,  however,  not  a 
little  difficult  to  represent  affection  in  a  dog,  whilst  ca- 
ressing his  master  and  wagging  his  tail,  as  the  essence  of 


52 


THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.      Chap.  IL 


Chap.  II.      THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS, 


53 


54 


THE  PRINCIPLE   OF  ANTITHESIS.      Chap.  XL 


Chap.  II.      THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS. 


65 


Pig.  8.— The  same  caresaing  his  master.    B7  Mr.  A.  May. 


56  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.      Chap.  II. 

the  expression  lies  in  the  continuous  flexuous  move- 
ments. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  cat.  When  this  animal  is 
threatened  by  a  dog,  it  arches  its  back  in  a  surprising 
manner,  erects  its  hair,  opens  its  mouth  and  spits. 
But  we  are  not  here  concerned  with  this  well-known 
attitude,  expressive  of  terror  combined  with  anger; 
we  are  concerned  only  with  that  of  rage  or  anger. 
This  is  not  often  seen,  but  may  be  observed  when  two 
cats  are  fighting  together;  and  I  have  seen  it  well  ex- 
hibited by  a  savage  cat  whilst  plagued  by  a  boy.  The 
attitude  is  almost  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  a  tiger 
disturbed  and  growling  over  its  food,  which  every  one 
must  have  beheld  in  menageries.  The  animal  assumes 
a  crouching  position,  with  the  body  extended;  and  the 
whole  tail,  or  the  tip  alone,  is  lashed  or  curled  from  side 
to  side.  The  hair  is  not  in  the  least  erect.  Thus  far, 
the  attitude  and  movements  are  nearly  the  same  as  when 
the  animal  is  prepared  to  spring  on  its  prey,  and  when, 
no  doubt,  it  feels  savage.  But  when  preparing  to  fight, 
there  is  this  difference,  that  the  ears  are  closely  pressed 
backwards;  the  mouth  is  partially  opened,  showing  the 
teeth;  the  fore  feet  are  occasionally  struck  out  with 
protruded  claws;  and  the  animal  occasionally  utters  a 
fierce  growl.  (See  figs.  9  and  10.)  All,  or  almost  all, 
these  actions  naturally  follow  (as  hereafter  to  be  ex- 
plained), from  the  cat's  manner  and  intention  of  attack- 
ing its  enemy. 

Let  us  now  look  at  a  cat  in  a  directly  opposite  frame 
of  mind,  whilst  feeling  affectionate  and  caressing  her 
master;  and  mark  how  opposite  is  her  attitude  in  every 
respect.  She  now  stands  upright  with  her  back  slightly 
arched,  which  makes  the  hair  appear  rather  rough,  but 
it  does  not  bristle;  her  tail,  instead  of  being  extended 
and  lashed  from  side  to  side,  is  held  quite  stiff  and  per- 


Chap.  II.       THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  57 

pendicularly  upwards;  her  ears  are  erect  and  pointed; 
her  mouth  is  closed;  and  she  rubs  against  her  master 
with  a  purr  instead  of  a  growl.  Let  it  further 
be  observed  how  widely  different  is  the  whole  bear- 
ing of  an  affectionate  cat  from  that  of  a  dog,  when  with 
his  body  crouching  and  flexuous,  his  tail  lowered  and 
wagging,  and  ears  depressed,  he  caresses  his  master. 
This  contrast  in  the  attitudes  and  movements  of  these 
two  carnivorous  animals,  under  the  same  pleased  and 
affectionate  frame  of  mind,  can  be  explained,  as  it 
appears  to  me,  solely  by  their  movements  standing  in 
complete  antithesis  to  those  which  are  naturally  as- 
sumed, when  these  animals  feel  savage  and  are  pre- 
pared either  to  fight  or  to  seize  their  prey. 

In  these  cases  of  the  dog  and  cat,  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  the  gestures  both  of  hostility  and 
affection  are  innate  or  inherited;  for  they  are  almost 
identically  the  same  in  the  different  races  of  the  spe- 
cies, and  in  all  the  individuals  of  the  same  race,  both 
young  and  old. 

I  will  here  give  one  other  instance  of  antithesis  in  ex- 
pression. I  formerly  possessed  a  large  dog,  who,  like 
every  other  dog,  was  much  pleased  to  go  out  walking. 
He  showed  his  pleasure  by  trotting  gravely  before  me 
with  high  steps,  head  much  raised,  moderately  erected 
ears,  and  tail  carried  aloft  but  not  stiffly.  Xot  far  from 
my  house  a  path  branches  off  to  the  right,  leading  to 
the  hot-house,  which  I  used  often  to  visit  for  a  few 
moments,  to  look  at  my  experimental  plants.  This  was 
always  a  great  disappointment  to  the  dog,  as  he  did  not 
know  whether  I  should  continue  my  walk;  and  the  in- 
stantaneous and  complete  change  of  expression  which 
came  over  him  as  soon  as  my  body  swerved  in  the  least 
towards  the  path  (and  I  sometimes  tried  this  as  an 
experiment)  was  laughable.  His  look  of  dejection  was 
5 


58 


THE   PRINCIPLE  OP  ANTITHESIS.      Chap.  IL 


Chap.  II.      THE  PRINCIPLE  OP  ANTITHESIS. 


59 


Pig.  10.— Cat  in  an  afEectionate  frame  of  mind,  by  Mr.  Wood. 


60  THE  PRINCIPLE   OF  ANTITHESIS.      Chap.  II. 

known  to  every  member  of  the  family,  and  was  called 
his  hot-house  face.  This  consisted  in  the  head  drooping 
much,  the  whole  body  sinking  a  little  and  remaining 
motionless;  the  ears  and  tail  falling  suddenly  down, 
but  the  tail  was  by  no  means  wagged.  With  the  fall- 
ing of  the  ears  and  of  his  great  chaps,  the  eyes  became 
much  changed  in  appearance,  and  I  fancied  that  they 
looked  less  bright.  His  aspect  was  that  of  piteous, 
hopeless  dejection;  and  it  was,  as  I  have  said,  laugh- 
able, as  the  cause  was  so  slight.  Every  detail  in  his 
attitude  was  in  complete  opposition  to  his  former  joy- 
ful yet  dignified  bearing;  and  can  be  explained,  as  it 
appears  to  me,  in  no  other  way,  except  through  the 
principle  of  antithesis.  Had  not  the  change  been  so 
instantaneous,  I  should  have  attributed  it  to  his  lowered 
spirits  affecting,  as  in  the  case  of  man,  the  nervous  sys- 
tem and  circulation,  and  consequently  the  tone  of  his 
whole  muscular  frame;  and  this  may  have  been  in  part 
the  cause. 

"We  will  now  consider  how  the  principle  of  antithesis 
in  expression  has  arisen.  With  social  animals,  the  power 
of  intercommunication  between  the  members  of  the 
same  community, — and  with  other  species,  between  the 
opposite  sexes,  as  well  as  between  the  young  and  the 
old, — is  of  the  highest  importance  to  them.  This  is 
generally  effected  by  means  of  the  voice,  but  it  is  cer- 
tain that  gestures  and  expressions  are  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent mutually  intelligible.  Man  not  only  uses  inar- 
ticulate cries,  gestures,  and  expressions,  but  has  in- 
vented articulate  language;  if,  indeed,  the  word  in- 
vented can  be  applied  to  a  process,  completed  by  in- 
numerable steps,  half-consciously  made.  Any  one  who 
has  watched  monkeys  will  not  doubt  that  they  perfectly 
understand  each  other's  gestures  and  expression,  and 


Chap.  II.      THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  61 

to  a  large  extent,  as  Rengger  asserts/  those  of  man. 
An  animal  when  going  to  attack  another,  or  when  afraid 
of  another,  often  makes  itself  appear  terrible,  by  erect- 
ing its  hair,  thus  increasing  the  apparent  bulk  of  its 
body,  by  showing  its  teeth,  or  brandishing  its  horns, 
or  by  uttering  fierce  sounds. 

As  the  power  of  intercommunication  is  certainly  of 
high  service  to  many  animals,  there  is  no  a  priori  im- 
probability in  the  supposition,  that  gestures  manifestly 
of  an  opposite  nature  to  those  by  which  certain  feelings 
are  already  expressed,  should  at  first  have  been  volun- 
tarily employed  under  the  influence  of  an  opposite  state 
of  feeling.  The  fact  of  the  gestures  being  now  innate, 
would  be  no  valid  objection  to  the  belief  that  they 
were  at  first  intentional;  for  if  practised  during  many 
generations,  they  would  probably  at  last  be  inherited. 
JsT evertheless  it  is  more  than  doubtful,  as  we  shall  imme- 
diately see,  whether  any  of  the  cases  which  come  under 
our  present  head  of  antithesis,  have  thus  originated. 

With  conventional  signs  which  are  not  innate,  such 
as  those  used  by  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  by  savages, 
the  principle  of  opposition  or  antithesis  has  been  par- 
tially brought  into  play.  The  Cistercian  monks  thought 
it  sinful  to  speak,  and  as  they  could  not  avoid  holding 
some  communication,  they  invented  a  gesture  language, 
in  which  the  principle  of  opposition  seems  to  have  been 
employed.^  Dr.  Scott,  of  the  Exeter  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Institution,  writes  to  me  that  "  opposites  are  greatly 
used  in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb,  who  have  a  lively 
sense  of  them."     !N'evertheless  I  have  been  surprised 


^  '  Naturgeschichte  der  Saug-etliiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830, 
s.  55. 

'  Mr.  Tylor  gives  an  account  of  the  Cistercian  gesture- 
language  in  his  '  Early  History  of  Mankind  '  (2nd  edit. 
1870,  p.  40),  and  makes  some  remarks  on  the  principle  of 
opposition  in  gestures. 


^2  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  i^NTITHESIS.      Chap.  IL 

how  few  unequivocal  instances  can  be  adduced.  This 
depends  partly  on  all  the  signs  having  commonly  had 
some  natural  origin;  and  partly  on  the  practice  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb  and  of  savages  to  contract  their  signs 
as  much  as  possible  for  the  sake  of  rapidity.^  Hence 
their  natural  source  or  origin  often  becomes  doubtful  or 
is  completely  lost;  as  is  likewise  the  case  with  articulate 
language. 

Many  signs,  moreover,  which  plainly  stand  in  oppo- 
sition to  each  other,  appear  to  have  had  on  both  sides 
a  significant  origin.  This  seems  to  hold  good  with 
the  signs  used  by  the  deaf  and  dumb  for  light  and  dark- 
ness, for  strength  and  weakness,  &c.  In  a  future  chap- 
ter I  shall  endeavour  to  show  that  the  opposite  gestures 
of  affirmation  and  negation,  namely,  vertically  nodding 
and  laterally  shaking  the  head,  have  both  probably  had 
a  natural  beginning.  The  waving  of  the  hand  from 
right  to  left,  which  is  used  as  a  negative  by  some  savages, 
may  have  been  invented  in  imitation  of  shaking  the 
head;  but  whether  the  opposite  movement  of  waving 
the  hand  in  a  straight  line  from  the  face,  which  is  used 
in  affirmation,  has  arisen  through  antithesis  or  in  some 
quite  distinct  manner,  is  doubtful. 

If  we  now  turn  to  the  gestures  which  are  innate 
or  common  to  all  the  individuals  of  the  same  species,  and 
which  come  under  the  present  head  of  antithesis,  it  is 
extremely  doubtful,  whether  any  of  them  were  at  first 
deliberately  invented  and  consciously  performed.  With 
mankind  the  best  instance  of  a  gesture  standing  in  direct 


'  See  on  this  subject  Dr.  W.  R.  Scott's  interesting  work, 
♦  The  Deaf  and  Dumb,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  12.  He  says,  "  This 
contracting  of  natural  gestures  into  much  shorter  gestures 
than  the  natural  expression  requires,  is  very  common 
amongst  the  deaf  and  dumb.  This  contracted  gesture 
is  frequently  so  shortened  as  nearly  to  lose  all  semblance 
of  the  natural  one,  but  to  the  deaf  and  dumb  who  use  it, 
it  Btill  has  the  force  of  the  original  expression." 


Chap.  II.      THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  63 

opposition  to  other  movements,  naturally  assumed  under 
an  opposite  frame  of  mind,  is  that  of  shrugging  the 
shoulders.  This  expresses  impotence  or  an  apology, — 
something  which  cannot  be  done,  or  cannot  be  avoided. 
The  gesture  is  sometimes  used  consciously  and  volun- 
tarily, but  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  it  was  at  first 
deliberately  invented,  and  afterwards  fixed  by  habit; 
for  not  only  do  young  children  sometimes  shrug  their 
shoulders  under  the  above  states  of  mind,  but  the  move- 
ment is  accompanied,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  future  chap- 
ter, by  various  subordinate  movements,  which  not  one 
man  in  a  thousand  is  aware  of,  unless  he  has  specially 
attended  to  the  subject. 

Dogs  when  approaching  a  strange  dog,  may  find  it 
useful  to  show  by  their  movements  that  they  are  friendly, 
and  do  not  wish  to  fight.  When  tw^o  young  dogs  in 
play  are  growling  and  biting  each  other's  faces  and  legs, 
it  is  obvious  that  they  mutually  understand  each  other's 
gestures  and  manners.  There  seems,  indeed,  some  de- 
gree of  instinctive  knowledge  in  puppies  and  kittens,  that 
they  must  not  use  their  sharp  little  teeth  or  claws  too 
freely  in  their  play,  though  this  sometimes  happens  and 
a  squeal  is  the  result;  otherwise  they  would  often  injure 
each  other's  eyes.  When  my  terrier  bites  my  hand  in 
play,  often  snarling  at  the  same  time,  if  he  bites  too 
hard  and  I  say  gently,  gently,  he  goes  on  biting,  but 
answers  me  by  a  few  wags  of  the  tail,  which  seems  to 
say  "  Never  mind,  it  is  all  fun."  Although  dogs  do  thus 
express,  and  may  wish  to  express,  to  other  dogs  and  to 
man,  that  they  are  in  a  friendly  state  of  mind,  it  is  in- 
credible that  they  could  ever  have  deliberately  thought 
of  drawing  back  and  depressing  their  ears,  instead  of 
holding  them  erect, — of  lowering  and  wagging  their 
tails,  instead  of  keeping  them  stiff  and  upright,  &c., 
because  they  knew  that  these  movements  stood  in  direct 


Q4:  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  AXTITHESIS.      Chap.  IL 

opposition  to  those  assumed  under  an  opposite  and  savage 
frame  of  mind. 

Again,  when  a  eat,  or  rather  when  some  earl}"  pro- 
genitor of  the  species,  from  feeling  affectionate  first 
slightly  arched  its  back,  held  its  tail  perpendicularly 
upwards  and  pricked  its  ears,  can  it  be  believed  that  the 
animal  consciously  wished  thus  to  show  that  its  frame 
of  mind  was  directly  the  reverse  of  that,  when  from  being 
ready  to  fight  or  to  spring  on  its  prey,  it  assumed  a 
crouching  attitude,  curled  its  tail  from  side  to  side  and 
depressed  its  ears?  Even  still  less  can  I  believe  that 
my  dog  voluntarily  put  on  his  dejected  attitude  and 
"  hot-house  face^''  which  formed  so  complete  a  contrast 
to  his  previous  cheerful  attitude  and  whole  bearing.  It 
cannot  be  supposed  that  he  knew  that  I  should  under- 
stand his  expression,  and  that  he  could  thus  soften  my 
heart  and  make  me  give  up  visiting  the  hot-house. 

Hence  for  the  development  of  the  movements  which 
come  under  the  present  head,  some  other  principle,  dis- 
tinct from  the  will  and  consciousness,  must  have  inter- 
vened. This  principle  appears  to  be  that  every  move- 
ment which  we  have  voluntarily  performed  through- 
out our  lives  has  required  the  action  of  certain  muscles; 
and  when  we  have  performed  a  directly  opposite  move- 
ment, an  opposite  set  of  muscles  has  been  habitually 
brought  into  play, — as  in  turning  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left,  in  pushing  away  or  pulling  an  object  towards  us, 
and  in  lifting  or  lowering  a  weight.  So  strongly  are 
our  intentions  and  movements  associated  together,  that 
if  we  eagerly  wish  an  object  to  move  in  any  direction, 
we  can  hardly  avoid  mo\ang  our  bodies  in  the  same 
direction,  although  we  may  be  perfectly  aware  that  this 
can  have  no  influence.  A  good  illustration  of  this  fact 
has  already  been  given  in  the  Introduction,  namely,  in 
the  grotesque  movements  of  a  young  and  eager  billiard- 


Chap.  II.      THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  ANTITHESIS.  65 

player,  whilst  watching  the  course  of  his  ball.  A  man 
or  child  in  a  passion,  if  he  tells  any  one  in  a  loud  voice 
to  begone,  generally  moves  his  arm  as  if  to  push  him 
away,  although  the  offender  may  not  be  standing  near, 
and  although  there  may  be  not  the  least  need  to  explain 
by  a  gesture  what  is  meant.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we 
eagerly  desire  some  one  to  approach  us  closely,  we  act 
as  if  pulling  him  towards  us;  and  so  in  innumerable 
other  instances. 

As  the  performance  of  ordinary  movements  of  an 
opposite  kind,  under  opposite  impulses  of  the  will,  has 
become  habitual  in  us  and  in  the  lower  animals,  so  when 
actions  of  one  kind  have  become  firmly  associated  with 
any  sensation  or  emotion,  it  appears  natural  that  actions 
of  a  directly  opposite  kind,  though  of  no  use,  should  be 
unconsciously  performed  through  habit  and  association, 
under  the  influence  of  a  directly  opposite  sensation  or 
emotion.  On  this  principle  alone  can  I  understand 
how  the  gestures  and  expressions  which  come  under 
the  present  head  of  antithesis  have  originated.  If  in- 
deed they  are  serviceable  to  man  or  to  any  other  animal, 
in  aid  of  inarticulate  cries  or  language,  they  will  like- 
wise be  voluntarily  employed,  and  the  habit  will  thus 
be  strengthened.  But  whether  or  not  of  service  as  a 
means  of  communication,  the  tendency  to  perform  op- 
posite movements  under  opposite  sensations  or  emotions 
would,  if  we  may  judge  by  analogy,  become  hereditary 
through  long  practice;  and  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that 
several  expressive  movements  due  to  the  principle  of 
antithesis  are  inherited. 


06  THE  PRIJ^CIPLE  OF  THE    DIRECT    Chap.  III. 


CHAPTER  III. 
Genekal  Principles  of  Expression — concluded. 

The  principle  of  direct  action  of  the  excited  nervous  sys- 
tem on  the  body,  independently  of  the  will  and  in  part 
of  habit — Chang-e  of  colour  in  the  hair — Trembling  of 
the  muscles — Modified  secretions — Perspiration — Ex- 
pression of  extreme  pain — Of  rage,  great  joy,  and 
terror — Contrast  between  the  emotions  which  cause 
and  do  not  cause  expressive  movements — Exciting  and 
depressing  states  of  the  mind — Summary. 

We  now  come  to  our  third  Principle,  namely,  that  cer- 
tain actions  which  we  recognize  as  expressive  of  certain 
states  of  the  mind,  are  the  direct  result  of  the  consti- 
tution of  the  nervous  system,  and  have  been  from  the 
first  independent  of  the  will,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  of 
habit.  When  the  gensorium  is  strongly  excited  nerve- 
force  is  generated  in  excess,  and  is  transmitted  in  certain 
directions,  dependent  on  the  connection  of  the  nerve- 
cells,  and,  as  far  as  the  muscular  system  is  concerned, 
on  the  nature  of  the  movements  which  have  been  ha- 
bitually practised.  Or  the  supply  of  nerve-force  may, 
as  it  appears,  be  interrupted.  Of  course  every  movement 
which  we  make  is  determined  by  the  constitution  of 
the  nervous  system;  but  actions  performed  in  obedience 
to  the  will,  or  through  habit,  or  through  the  principle 
of  antithesis,  are  here  as  far  as  possible  excluded.  Our 
present  subject  is  very  obscure,  but,  from  its  impor- 

66 


Chap.  III.  ACTION  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  67 

tance,  must  be  discussed  at  some  little  length;  and  it  is 
always  advisable  to  perceive  clearly  our  ignorance. 

The  most  striking  case,  though  a  rare  and  abnormal 
one,  which  can  be  adduced  of  the  direct  influence  of  the 
nervous  system,  when  strongly  affected,  on  the  body,  is 
the  loss  of  colour  in  the  hair,  which  has  occasionally 
been  observed  after  extreme  terror  or  grief.  One  au- 
thentic instance  has  been  recorded,  in  the  case  of  a  man 
brought  out  for  execution  in  India,  in  which  the  change 
of  colour  was  so  rapid  that  it  was  perceptible  to  the  eye.^ 

Another  good  case  is  that  of  the  trembling  of  the 
muscles,  which  is  common  to  man  and  to  many,  or 
most,  of  the  lower  animals.  Trembling  is  of  no  service, 
often  of  much  disservice,  and  cannot  have  been  at  first 
acquired  through  the  will,  and  then  rendered  habitual 
in  association  with  any  emotion.  I  am  assured  by  an 
eminent  authority  that  young  children  do  not  tremble, 
but  go  into  convulsions  under  the  circumstances  which 
would  induce  excessive  trembling  in  adults.  Trembling 
is  excited  in  different  individuals  in  very  different  de- 
grees, and  by  the  most  diversified  causes, — by  cold  to 
the  surface,  before  fever-fits,  although  the  temperature 
of  the  body  is  then  above  the  normal  standard;  in 
blood-poisoning,  delirium  tremens,  and  other  diseases; 
by  general  failure  of  power  in  old  age;  by  exhaustion 
after  excessive  fatigue;  locally  from  severe  injuries,  such 
as  burns;  and,  in  an  especial  manner,  by  the  passage  of 
a  catheter.  Of  all  emotions,  fear  notoriously  is  the  most 
apt  to  induce  trembling;  but  so  do  occasionally  great  an- 
ger and  joy.  I  remember  once  seeing  a  boy  who  had 
just  shot  his  first  snipe  on  the  wing,  and  his  hands 


^  See  the  interesting-  eases  collected  by  M.  G.  Pouchet 
in  the  *  Beanie  des  Deux  Mondes,'  January  1,  1872,  p.  79. 
An  instance  was  also  brought  some  years  ago  before  the 
British  Association  at  Belfast. 


gg  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  DIUECT    Chap.  III. 

trembled  to  such  a  degree  from  delight,  that  he  could 
not  for  some  time  reload  his  gun;  and  I  have  heard 
of  an  exactly  similar  case  with  an  Austrahan  savage, 
to  whom  a  gun  had  been  lent.  Fine  music,  from  the 
vague  emotions  thus  excited,  causes  a  shiver  to  run 
down  the  backs  of  some  persons.  There  seems  to  be 
very  httle  in  common  in  the  above  several  physical 
causes  and  emotions  to  account  for  trembUng;  and  Sir 
J.  Paget,  to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  several  of  thQ 
above  statements,  informs  me  that  the  subject  is  a  very 
obscure  one.  As  trembhng  is  sometimes  caused  by 
rage,  long  before  exhaustion  can  have  set  in,  and  as  it 
sometimes  accompanies  great  joy,  it  would  appear  that 
any  strong  excitement  of  the  nervous  system  interrupts 
the  steady  flow  of  nerve-force  to  the  muscles.^ 

The  manner  in  which  the  secretions  of  the  alimentary 
canal  and  of  certain  glands— as  the  liver,  kidneys,  or 
mammae— are  affected  by  strong  emotions,  is  another 
excellent  instance  of  the  direct  action  of  the  sensorium 
on  these  organs,  independently  of  the  will  or  of  any 
serviceable  associated  habit.  There  is  the  greatest  dif- 
ference in  different  persons  in  the  parts  which  are  thus 
affected,  and  in  the  degree  of  their  affection. 

The  heart,  which  goes  on  uninterruptedly  beating 
night  and  day  in  so  wonderful  a  manner,  is  extremely 
sensitive  to  external  stimulants.  The  great  physiologist, 
Claude  Bernard,^  has  shown  how  the  least  excitement 
of  a  sensitive  nerve  reacts  on  the  heart;  even  when  a 
nerve  is  touched  so  slightly  that  no  pain  can  possibly 


»  Miiller  remarks  ('Elements  of  Physiology,  Eng. 
translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  934)  that  when  the  feelings  are  very 
intense,  "  all  the  spinal  nerves  become  affected  to  the  ex- 
tent of  imperfect  paralysis,  or  the  excitement  of  trem- 
bling of  the  vrhole  body."  ,   -.oaa 

»  'Lemons  sur  les  Prop,  des  Tissus  Vivants,  1866,  pp. 
457-466. 


Chap.  III.  ACTION  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  69 

be  felt  by  the  animal  under  experiment.  Hence  when 
the  mind  is  strongly  excited,  we  might  expect  that  it 
would  instantly  affect  in  a  direct  manner  the  heart; 
and  this  is  universally  acknowledged  and  felt  to  be  the 
case.  Claude  Bernard  also  repeatedly  insists,  and  this 
deserves  especial  notice,  that  when  the  heart  is  affected 
it  reacts  on  the  brain;  and  the  state  of  the  brain  again 
reacts  through  the  pneumo-gastric  nerve  on  the  heart; 
so  that  under  any  excitement  there  will  be  much  mu- 
tual action  and  reaction  between  these,  the  two  most 
important  organs  of  the  body. 

The  vaso-motor  system,  which  regulates  the  diameter 
of  the  small  arteries,  is  directly  acted  on  by  the  sen- 
sorium,  as  we  see  when  a  man  blushes  from  shame;  but 
in  this  latter  case  the  checked  transmission  of  nerve- 
force  to  the  vessels  of  the  face  can,  I  think,  be  partly 
explained  in  a  curious  manner  through  habit.  We  shall 
also  be  able  to  throw  some  light,  though  very  little,  on 
the  involuntary  erection  of  the  hair  under  the  emotions 
of  terror  and  rage.  The  secretion  of  tears  depends,  no 
doubt,  on  the  connection  of  certain  nerve-cells;  but 
here  again  we  can  trace  some  few  of  the  steps  by  which 
the  flow  of  nerve-force  through  the  requisite  channels 
has  become  habitual  under  certain  emotions. 

A  brief  consideration  of  the  outward  signs  of  some  of 
the  stronger  sensations  and  emotions  will  best  serve  to 
show  us,  although  vaguely,  in  how  complex  a  manner 
the  principle  under  consideration  of  the  direct  action 
of  the  excited  nervous  system  of  the  body,  is  combined 
with  the  principle  of  habitually  associated,  serviceable 
movements. 

When  animals  suffer  from  an  agony  of  pain,  they 
generally  writhe  about  with  frightful  contortions;  and 
those  which  habitually  use  their  voices  utter  piercing 


70  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  DIRECT    Chap.  IIL 

cries  or  groans.  Almost  every  muscle  of  the  body  is 
brought  into  strong  action.  With  man  the  mouth  may 
be  closely  compressed,  or  more  commonly  the  lips  are 
retracted,  with  the  teeth  clenched  or  ground  together. 
There  is  said  to  be  "  gnashing  of  teeth  "  in  hell;  and  I 
have  plainly  heard  the  grinding  of  the  molar  teeth  of 
a  cow  which  was  suffering  acutely  from  inflammation 
of  the  bowels.  The  female  hippopotamus  in  the  Zoo- 
logical Gardens,  when  she  produced  her  young,  suf- 
fered greatly;  she  incessantly  walked  about,  or  rolled 
on  her  sides,  opening  and  closing  her  jaws,  and  clatter- 
ing her  teeth  together.*  With  man  the  eyes  stare  wildly 
as  in  horrified  astonishment,  or  the  brows  are  heavily 
contracted.  Perspiration  bathes  the  body,  and  drops 
trickle  down  the  face.  The  circulation  and  respiration 
are  much  affected.  Hence  the  nostrils  are  generally 
dilated  and  often  quiver;  or  the  breath  may  be  held 
until  the  blood  stagnates  in  the  purple  face.  If  the 
agony  be  severe  and  prolonged,  these  signs  all  change; 
utter  prostration  follows,  with  fainting  or  convulsions. 

A  sensitive  nerve  when  irritated  transmits  some  in- 
fluence to  the  nerve-cell,  whence  it  proceeds;  and  this 
transmits  its  influence,  first  to  the  corresponding  nerve- 
cell  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body,  and  then  upwards 
and  dpwnwards  along  the  cerebro-spinal  column  to  other 
nerve-cells,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  excitement;  so  that,  ultimately,  the  whole 
nervous  system  may  be  affected.^  This  involuntary  trans- 
mission of  nerve-force  mav  or  may  not  be  accompa- 


*  'Sir.  Bartlett,  "Notes  on  the  Birth  of  a  Hippopota- 
mus," Proc.  Zooloe.  Soc.  1871,  p.  255. 

^  See,  on  this  subject,  Claude  Bernard,  '  Tissus  Vivants,' 
1866,  pp.  316,  337,  358.  Virchow  expresses  himself  to  al- 
most exactly  the  same  effect  in  his  essay  "  Ueber  das 
Eiickenmark"  (Sammlung  wissenschaft.  Vortrage,  1871, 
s.  28). 


Chap.  III.  ACTION  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  71 

nied  by  consciousness.  Why  the  irritation  of  a  nerve- 
cell  should  generate  or  liberate  nerve-force  is  not  known; 
but  that  this  is  the  case  seems  to  be  the  conclusion  ar- 
rived at  by  all  the  greatest  physiologists,  such  as  Mtiller, 
Virchow,  Bernard,  &c.^  As  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  re- 
marks, it  may  be  received  as  an  "  unquestionable  truth 
that,  at  any  moment,  the  existing  quantity  of  liberated 
nerve-force,  which  in  an  inscrutable  way  produces  in  us 
the  state  we  call  feeling,  must  expend  itself  in  some 
direction — must  generate  an  equivalent  manifestation 
of  force  somewhere; "  so  that,  when  the  cerebro-spinal 
system  is  highly  excited  and  nerve-force  is  liberated  in 
excess,  it  may  be  expended  in  intense  sensations,  active 
thought,  violent  movements,  or  increased  activity  of 
the  glands.'^  Mr.  Spencer  further  maintains  that  an 
"  overflow  of  nerve-force,  undirected  by  any  motive,  will 
manifestly  take  the  most  habitual  routes;  and,  if  these 
do  not  suiflce,  will  next  overflow  into  the  less  habitual 
ones."  Consequently  the  facial  and  respiratory  mus- 
cles, which  are  the  most  used,  will  be  apt  to  be  first 
brought  into  action;  then  those  of  the  upper  extremi- 
ties, next  those  of  the  lower,  and  finally  those  of  the 
whole  body.* 

An  emotion  may  be  very  strong,  but  it  will  have 
little  tendency  to  induce  movements  of  any  kind,  if  it 


*  Miiller  (*  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng.  translat.  vol. 
ii.  p.  932)  in  speaking"  of  the  nerves,  says,  "  any  sudden 
chang-e  of  condition  of  whatever  kind  sets  the  nervous 
principle  into  action."  See  Virchow^  and  Bernard  on  the 
same  subject  in  passages  in  the  two  works  referred  to 
in  my  last  foot-not€. 

'  H.  Spencer,  '  Essays,  Scientific,  Political,'  &c.,  Second 
Series,  1863,  pp.  109,  111. 

*  Sir  H.  Holland,  in  speaking  ('  Medical  Notes  and  Re- 
flexions,' 1839,  p.  328)  of  that  curious  state  of  body  called 
the  fidgets,  remarks  that  it  seems  due  to  "  an  accumula- 
tion of  some  cause  of  irritation  which  requires  muscular 
action  for  its  relief." 


72  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  DIRECT    Chap.  IIL 

has  not  commonly  led  to  voluntary  action  for  its  relief  or 
gratification;  and  when  movements  are  excited,  their 
nature  is,  to  a  large  extent,  determined  by  those  which 
have  often  and  voluntarily  been  performed  for  some 
definite  end  under  the  same  emotion.  Great  pain  urges 
all  animals,  and  has  urged  them  during  endless  genera- 
tions, to  make  the  most  violent  and  diversified  efforts  to 
escape  from  the  cause  of  suffering.  Even  when  a  limb 
or  other  separate  part  of  the  body  is  hurt,  we  often  see 
a  tendency  to  shake  it,  as  if  to  shake  off  the  cause, 
though  this  may  obviously  be  impossible.  Thus  a  habit 
of  exerting  with  the  utmost  force  all  the  muscles  will 
have  been  established,  whenever  great  suffering  is  ex- 
perienced. As  the  muscles  of  the  chest  and  vocal  or- 
gans are  habitually  used,  these  will  be  particularly  liable 
to  be  acted  on,  and  loud,  harsh  screams  or  cries  will 
be  uttered.  But  the  advantage  derived  from  outcries 
has  here  probably  come  into  play  in  an  important  man- 
ner; for  the  young  of  most  animals,  when  in  dis- 
tress or  danger,  call  loudly  to  their  parents  for  aid, 
as  do  the  members  of  the  same  community  for  mutual 
aid. 

Another  principle,  namely,  the  internal  conscious- 
ness that  the  power  or  capacity  of  the  nervous  system  is 
limited,  mil  have  strengthened,  though  in  a  subordinate 
degree,  the  tendency  to  -^dolent  action  under  extreme 
suffering.  A  man  cannot  think  deeply  and  exert  his 
utmost  muscular  force.  As  Hippocrates  long  ago  ob- 
served, if  two  pains  are  felt  at  the  same  time,  the 
severer  one  dulls  the  other.  Martyrs,  in  the  ecstasy  of 
their  religious  fervour  have  often,  as  it  would  appear, 
been  insensible  to  the  most  horrid  tortures.  Sailors 
who  are  going  to  be  flogged  sometimes  take  a  piece  of 
lead  into  their  mouths,  in  order  to  bite  it  with  their 
utmost  force,  and  thus  to  bear  the  pain.     Parturient 


Chap.  III.  ACTION  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  73 

women  prepare  to  exert  their  muscles  to  the  utmost  in 
order  to  relieve  their  sufferings. 

We  thus  see  that  the  undirected  radiation  of  nerve- 
force  from  the  nerve-cells  which  are  first  affected — 
the  long-continued  habit  of  attempting  by  struggling 
to  escape  from  the  cause  of  suffering — and  the  con- 
sciousness that  voluntary  muscular  exertion  relieves  pain, 
have  all  probably  concurred  in  giving  a  tendency  to  the 
most  violent,  almost  convulsive,  movements  under  ex- 
treme suffering;  and  such  movements,  including  those 
of  the  vocal  organs,  are  universally  recognized  as  highly 
expressive  of  this  condition. 

As  the  mere  touching  of  a  sensitive  nerve  reacts  in  a 
direct  manner  on  the  heart,  severe  pain  will  obviously 
react  on  it  in  like  manner,  but  far  more  energetically. 
Nevertheless,  even  in  this  case,  we  must  not  overlook 
the  indirect  effects  of  habit  on  the  heart,  as  we  shall 
see  when  we  consider  the  signs  of  rage. 

When  a  man  suffers  from  an  agony  of  pain,  the  per- 
spiration often  trickles  down  his  face;  and  I  have  been 
assured  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  that  he  has  frequently 
seen  drops  falling  from  the  belly  and  running  down  the 
inside  of  the  thighs  of  horses,  and  from  the  bodies  of 
cattle,  when  thus  suffering.  He  has  observed  this,  when 
there  has  been  no  struggling  which  would  account  for 
the  perspiration.  The  whole  body  of  the  female  hippo- 
potamus, before  alluded  to,  was  covered  with  red-col- 
oured perspiration  whilst  giving  birth  to  her  young.  So 
it  is  with  extreme  fear;  the  same  veterinary  has  often 
seen  horses  sweating  from  this  cause;  as  has  Mr.  Bartlett 
with  the  rhinoceros;  and  with  man  it  is  a  well-known 
symptom.  The  cause  of  perspiration  bursting  forth  in 
these  cases  is  quite  obscure;  but  it  is  thought  by  some 
physiologists  to  be  connected  with  the  failing  power  of 
the  capillary  circulation;  and  we  know  that  the  vaso- 
6 


74  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  DIRECT    Chap.  III. 

motor  system,  which  regulates  the  capillary  circulation, 
is  much  influenced  by  the  mind.  With  respect  to  the 
movements  of  certain  muscles  of  the  face  under  great 
suffering,  as  well  as  from  other  emotions,  these  will  be 
best  considered  when  we  treat  of  the  special  expressions 
of  man  and  of  the  lower  animals. 

We  will  now  turn  to  the  characteristic  symptoms  of 
Kage.  Under  this  powerful  emotion  the  action  of  the 
heart  is  much  accelerated,^  or  it  may  be  much  dis- 
turbed. The  face  reddens,  or  it  becomes  purple  from  the 
impeded  return  of  the  blood,  or  may  turn  deadly  pale. 
The  respiration  is  laboured,  the  chest  heaves,  and  the 
dilated  nostrils  quiver.  The  whole  body  often  trembles. 
The  voice  is  affected.  The  teeth  are  clenched  or  ground 
together,  and  the  muscular  system  is  commonly  stimu- 
lated to  violent,  almost  frantic  action.  But  the  gestures 
of  a  man  in  this  state  usually  differ  from  the  purposeless 
writhings  and  struggles  of  one  suffering  from  an  agony 
of  pain;  for  they  represent  more  or  less  plainly  the  act 
of  striking  or  fighting  with  an  enemy. 

All  these  signs  of  rage  are  probably  in  large  part, 
and  some  of  them  appear  to  be  wholly,  due  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  excited  sensorium.  But  animals  of  all 
kinds,  and  their  progenitors  before  them,  when  attacked 
or  threatened  by  an  enemy,  have  exerted  their  utmost 
powers  in  fighting  and  in  defending  themselves.  Un- 
less an  animal  does  thus  act,  or  has  the  intention,  or  at 
least  the  desire,  to  attack  its  enemy,  it  cannot  properly 
be  said  to  be  enraged.  An  inherited  habit  of  muscular 
exertion  will  thus  have  been  gained  in  association  with 
rage;  and  this  will   directly  or  indirectly  affect  vari- 

»  I  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  A.  H.  Garrod  for  having 
informed  me  of  M.  Lorain's  work  on  the  pulse,  in  which 
a  sphv£nno2Tam  of  a  woman  in  a  ragre  is  griven;  and 
this  shows  much  difference  in  the  rate  and  other  charac- 
ters from  that  of  the  same  woman  in  her  ordinary  state. 


Chap.  III.  ACTION  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  75 

ous  organs,  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  does  great  bod- 
ily suffering. 

The  heart  no  doubt  will  likewise  be  affected  in  a  direct 
manner;  but  it  will  also  in  all  probability  be  affected 
through  habit;  and  all  the  more  so  from  not  being 
under  the  control  of  the  will.  We  know  that  any  great 
exertion  which  we  voluntarily  make,  affects  the  heart, 
through  mechanical  and  other  principles  which  need 
not  here  be  considered;  and  it  w^as  shown  in  the  first 
chapter  that  nerve-force  flows  readily  through  habitu- 
ally used  channels, — through  the  nerves  of  voluntary 
or  involuntary  movement,  and  through  those  of  sen- 
sation. Thus  even  a  moderate  amount  of  exertion  will 
tend  to  act  on  the  heart;  and  on  the  principle  of  asso- 
ciation, of  which  so  many  instances  have  been  given, 
we  may  feel  nearly  sure  that  any  sensation  or  emotion, 
as  great  pain  or  rage,  which  has  habitually  led  to  much 
muscular  action,  will  immediately  influence  the  flow  of 
nerve-force  to  the  heart,  although  there  may  not  be  at 
the  time  any  muscular  exertion. 

The  heart,  as  I  have  said,  will  be  all  the  more  readily 
affected  through  habitual  associations,  as  it  is  not  under 
the  control  of  the  will.  A  man  when  moderately  angry, 
or  even  when  enraged,  may  command  the  movements  of 
his  body,  but  he  cannot  prevent  his  heart  from  beating 
rapidly.  His  chest  will  perhaps  give  a  few  heaves,  and 
his  nostrils  just  quiver,  for  the  movements  of  respiration 
are  only  in  part  voluntary.  In  like  manner  those  mus- 
cles of  the  face  which  are  least  obedient  to  the  will, 
will  sometimes  alone  betray  a  slight  and  passing  emo- 
tion. The  glands  again  are  wholly  independent  of  the 
will,  and  a  man  suffering  from  grief  may  command 
his  features,  but  cannot  always  prevent  the  tears  from 
coming  into  his  eyes.  A  hungry  man,  if  tempting  food 
is  placed  before  him,  may  not  show  his  hunger  by  any 


76  THE   PRINCIPLE  OF   THE  DIRECT    Chap.  IIL 

outward  gesture,  but  he  cannot  check  the  secretion  of 
saliva. 

Under  a  transport  of  Joy  or  of  vivid  Pleasure,  there  is 
a  strong  tendency  to  various  purposeless  movements,  and 
to  the  utterance  of  various  sounds.  We  see  this  in  our 
young  children,  in  their  loud  laughter,  clapping  of  hands, 
and  jumping  for  joy;  in  the  bounding  and  barking  of  a 
dog  when  going  out  to  walk  with  his  master;  and  in  the 
frisking  of  a  horse  when  turned  out  into  an  open  field. 
Joy  quickens  the  circulation,  and  this  stimulates  the 
brain,  which  again  reacts  on  the  whole  body.  The 
above  purposeless  movements  and  increased  heart-action 
may  be  attributed  in  chief  part  to  the  excited  state  of 
the  sensorium,^^  and  to  the  consequent  undirected  over- 
flow, as  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  insists,  of  nerve-force.  It 
deserves  notice,  that  it  is  chiefly  the  anticipation  of  a 
pleasure,  and  not  its  actual  enjoyment,  which  leads  to 
purposeless  and  extravagant  movements  of  the  body, 
and  to  the  utterance  of  various  sounds.  We  see  this 
in  our  children  when  they  expect  any  great  pleasure  or 
treat;  and  dogs,  which  have  been  bounding  about  at 


"  How  powerfully  intense  joy  excites  the  brain,  and 
how  the  brain  react^  on  the  body,  is  well  shown  in  the 
rare  eases  of  Psychical  Intoxication.  Dr.  J.  Crichton 
Browne  ('  Medical  :SIirror,'  1865)  records  the  case  of  a 
young  man  of  strongly  nervous  temperament,  who,  on 
iiearing-  by  a  telegram  that  a  fortune  had  been  bequeathed 
him,  first  became  pale,  then  exhilarated,  and  soon  in 
the  his-hest  spirits,  but  flushed  and  very  restless.  He  then 
took  a  walk  with  a  friend  for  the  sake  of  tranquillising 
himself,  but  returned  staggering  in  his  gait,  uproariously 
laughing,  vet  irritable  in  temper,  incessantly  talking,  and 
singing  loudly  in  the  public  streets.  It  was  positively 
ascertained  that  he  had  not  touched  any  spirituous  liquor, 
though  every  one  thought  that  he  was  intoxicated.  Vomit- 
ing after  a  time  came  on,  and  the  half-digested  contents 
of  his  stomach  were  examined,  but  no  odour  of  alcohol 
could  be  detected.  He  then  slept  heavily,  and  on  awak- 
ing was  well,  except  that  he  suffered  from  headache, 
nausea,  and  prostration  of  strength. 


Chap.  III.  ACTION   OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  77 

the  sight  of  a  plate  of  food,  when  they  get  it  do  not 
show  their  dehght  by  any  outward  sign,  not  even  by 
wagging  their  tails.  Now  with  animals  of  all  kinds, 
the  acquirement  of  almost  all  their  pleasures,  with  the 
exception  of  those  of  warmth  and  rest,  are  associated, 
and  have  long  been  associated  with  active  movements^ 
as  in  the  hunting  or  search  for  food,  and  in  their  court- 
ship. Moreover,  the  mere  exertion  of  the  muscles  after 
long  rest  or  confinement  is  in  itself  a  pleasure,  as  we 
ourselves  feel,  and  as  we  see  in  the  play  of  young  ani- 
mals. Therefore  on  this  latter  principle  alone  we  might 
perhaps  expect,  that  vivid  pleasure  would  be  apt  to  show 
itself  conversely  in  muscular  movements. 

With  all  or  almost  all  animals,  even  with  birds. 
Terror  causes  the  body  to  tremble.  The  skin  becomes 
pale,  sweat  breaks  out,  and  the  hair  bristles.  The  se- 
cretions of  the  alimentary  canal  and  of  the  kidneys  are 
increased,  and  they  are  involuntarily  voided,  owing  to 
the  relaxation  of  the  sphincter  muscles,  as  is  known  to  be 
the  case  with  man,  and  as  I  have  seen  with  cattle,  dogs, 
cats,  and  monkeys.  The  breathing  is  hurried.  The  heart 
beats  quickly,  wildly,  and  violently;  but  whether  it 
pumps  the  blood  more  efficiently  through  the  body  may 
be  doubted,  for  the  surface  seems  bloodless  and  the 
strength  of  the  muscles  soon  fails.  In  a  frightened  horse 
I  have  felt  through  the  saddle  the  beating  of  the  heart 
so  plainly  that  I  could  have  counted  the  beats.  The 
mental  faculties  are  much  disturbed.  Utter  prostration 
soon  follows,  and  even  fainting.  A  terrified  canary-bird 
has  been  seen  not  only  to  tremble  and  to  turn  white 
about  the  base  of  the  bill,  but  to  faint;  ^^  and  I  once 
caught  a  robin  in  a  room,  which  fainted  so  completely, 
that  for  a  time  I  thought  it  dead. 

"  Dr,  Darwin,  '  Zoonomia,'  1794,  vol.  i.  p.  148. 


/^8  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  DIRECT    Chap.  III. 

Most  of  these  symptoms  are  probably  the  direct  result, 
independently  of  habit,  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
sensorium;  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  ought  to  be 
wholly  thus  accounted  for.  When  an  animal  is  alarmed 
it  almost  always  stands  motionless  for  a  moment,  in 
order  to  collect  its  senses  and  to  ascertain  the  source 
of  danger,  and  sometimes  for  the  sake  of  escaping  de- 
tection. But  headlong  flight  soon  follows,  with  no  hus- 
banding of  the  strength  as  in  fighting,  and  the  animal 
continues  to  fly  as  long  as  the  danger  lasts,  until  utter 
prostration,  with  failing  respiration  and  circulation,  with 
all  the  muscles  quivering  and  profuse  sweating,  renders 
further  fhght  impossible.  Hence  it  does  not  seem  im- 
probable that  the  principle  of  associated  habit  may  in 
part  account  for,  or  at  least  augment,  some  of  the  above- 
named  characteristic  symptoms  of  extreme  terror. 

That  the  principle  of  associated  habit  has  played  an 
important  part  in  causing  the  movements  expressive  of 
the  foregoing  several  strong  emotions  and  sensations, 
we  may,  I  think,  conclude  from  considering  firstly,  some 
other  strong  emotions  which  do  not  ordinarily  require 
for  their  relief  or  gratification  any  voluntary  move- 
ment; and  secondly  the  contrast  in  nature  between 
the  so-called  exciting  and  depressing  states  of  the 
mind.  No  emotion  is  stronger  than  maternal  love;  but 
a  mother  may  feel  the  deepest  love  for  her  helpless 
infant,  and  yet  not  show  it  by  any  outward  sign;  or 
only  by  slight  caressing  movements,  with  a  gentle  smile 
and  tender  eyes.  But  let  any  one  intentionally  injure 
her  infant,  and  see  what  a  change!  how  she  starts  up 
with  threatening  aspect,  how  her  eyes  sparkle  and  her 
face  reddens,  how  her  bosom  heaves,  nostrils  dilate,  and 
heart  beats;  for  anger,  and  not  maternal  love,  has  ha- 
bitually led  to  action.     The  love  between  the  opposite 


Chap.  III.  ACTION  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  79 

sexes  is  widely  different  from  maternal  love;  and  when 
lovers  meet,  we  know  that  their  hearts  beat  quickly, 
their  breathing  is  hurried,  and  their  faces  flush;  for 
this  love  is  not  inactive  like  that  of  a  mother  for  her 
infant. 

A  man  may  have  his  mind  filled  with  the  blackest 
hatred  or  suspicion,  or  be  corroded  with  envy  or  jealousy, 
but  as  these  feehngs  do  not  at  once  lead  to  action,  and  as 
they  commonly  last  for  some  time,  they  are  not  shown 
by  any  outward  sign,  excepting  that  a  man  in  this  state 
assuredly  does  not  appear  cheerful  or  good-tempered. 
If  indeed  these  feelings  break  out  into  overt  acts,  rage 
takes  their  place,  and  will  be  plainly  exhibited.  Paint- 
ers can  hardly  portray  suspicion,  jealousy,  envy,  &c., 
except  by  the  aid  of  accessories  which  tell  the  tale; 
and  poets  use  such  vague  and  fanciful  expressions  as 
"green-eyed  jealousy."  Spenser  describes  suspicion  as 
"  Foul,  ill-favoured,  and  grim,  under  his  eyebrows  look- 
ing still  askance,"  &c.;  Shakespeare  speaks  of  envy  "as 
lean-faced  in  her  loathsome  case; "  and  in  another  place 
he  says,  "  no  black  envy  shall  make  my  grave; "  and 
again  as  "  above  pale  envy's  threatening  reach." 

Emotions  and  sensations  have  often  been  classed  as 
exciting  or  depressing.  When  all  the  organs  of  the 
body  and  mind, — those  of  voluntary  and  involuntary 
movement,  of  perception,  sensation,  thought,  &c., — 
perform  their  functions  more  energetically  and  rapidly 
than  usual,  a  man  or  animal  may  be  said  to  be  excited, 
and,  under  an  opposite  state,  to  be  depressed.  Anger 
and  joy  are  from  the  first  exciting  emotions,  and  they 
naturally  lead,  more  especially  the  former,  to  energetic 
movements,  which  react  on  the  heart  and  this  again 
on  the  brain.  A  physician  once  remarked  to  me  as  a 
proof  of  the  exciting  nature  of  anger,  that  a  man  when 
excessively    jaded    will    sometimes    invent    imaginary 


80  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  DIRECT    Chap.  IIL 

offences  and  put  himself  into  a  passion,  unconsciously 
for  the  sake  of  reinvigorating  himself;  and  since  hear- 
ing this  remark,  I  have  occasionally  recognized  its  full 
truth. 

Several  other  states  of  mind  appear  to  be  at  first 
exciting,  hut  soon  become  depressing  to  an  extreme 
degree.  When  a  mother  suddenly  loses  her  child,  some- 
times she  is  frantic  with  grief,  and  must  be  consid- 
ered to  be  in  an  excited  state;  she  walks  wildly  about, 
tears  her  hair  or  clothes,  and  wrings  her  hands.  This 
latter  action  is  perhaps  due  to  the  principle  of  anti- 
thesis, betraying  an  inward  sense  of  helplessness  and 
that  nothing  can  be  done.  The  other  wild  and  vio- 
lent movements  may  be  in  part  explained  by  the  relief 
experienced  through  muscular  exertion,  and  in  part  by 
the  undirected  overflow  of  nerve-force  from  the  excited 
sensorium.  But  under  the  sudden  loss  of  a  beloved 
person,  one  of  the  first  and  commonest  thoughts  which 
occurs,  is  that  something  more  might  have  been  done 
to  save  the  lost  one.  An  excellent  observer,^^  in  de- 
scribing the  behaviour  of  a  girl  at  the  sudden  death 
of  her  father,  says  she  "  went  about  the  house  wring- 
ing her  hands  like  a  creature  demented,  saying  ^  It  was 
her  fault; '  *  I  should  never  have  left  him; '  '  If  I  had 
only  sat  up  with  him,' "  &c.  With  such  ideas  vividly 
present  before  the  mind,  there  would  arise,  through 
the  principle  of  associated  habit,  the  strongest  tendency 
to  energetic  action  of  some  kind. 

As  soon  as  the  sufferer  is  fully  conscious  that  nothing 
can  be  done,  despair  or  deep  sorrow  takes  the  place  of 
frantic  grief.  The  sufferer  sits  motionless,  or  gently 
rocks  to  and  fro;  the  circulation  becomes  languid;  res- 
piration is  almost  forgotten,  and  deep  sighs  are  drawn. 

"  Mrs.  Oliphant,  in  her  novel  of  '  Miss  Majoribanks/ 
p.  362. 


Chap.  III.  ACTION  OF  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM.  81 

All  this  reacts  on  the  brain,  and  prostration  soon 
follows  with  collapsed  muscles  and  dulled  eyes.  As 
associated  habit  no  longer  prompts  the  sufferer  to  action, 
he  is  urged  by  his  friends  to  voluntary  exertion,  and 
not  to  give  way  to  silent,  motionless  grief.  Exertion 
stimulates  the  heart,  and  this  reacts  on  the  brain,  and 
aids  the  mind  to  bear  its  heavy  load. 

Pain,  if  severe,  soon  induces  extreme  depression  or 
prostration;  but  it  is  at  first  a  stimulant  and  excites  to 
action,  as  v;e  see  when  we  whip  a  horse,  and  as  is  shown 
by  the  horrid  tortures  inflicted  in  foreign  lands  on  ex- 
hausted dray-bullocks,  to  rouse  them  to  renewed  exertion. 
Fear  again  is  the  most  depressing  of  all  the  emotions; 
and  it  soon  induces  utter,  helpless  prostration,  as  if  in 
consequence  of,  or  in  association  with,  the  most  violent 
and  prolonged  attempts  to  escape  from  the  danger, 
though  no  such  attempts  have  actually  been  made. 
Nevertheless,  even  extreme  fear  often  acts  at  first  as  a 
powerful  stimulant.  A  man  or  animal  driven  through 
terror  to  desperation,  is  endowed  with  wonderful 
strength,  and  is  notoriously  dangerous  in  the  highest 
degree. 

On  the  whole  we  may  conclude  that  the  principle  of 
the  direct  action  of  the  sensorium  on  the  body,  due  to 
the  constitution  of  the  nervous  system,  and  from  the  first 
independent  of  the  will,  has  been  highly  influential  in 
determining  many  expressions.  Good  instances  are 
afforded  by  the  trembling  of  the  muscles,  the  sweating 
of  the  skin,  the  modified  secretions  of  the  alimentary 
canal  and  glands,  under  various  emotions  and  sensations. 
But  actions  of  this  kind  are  often  combined  with  others, 
which  follow  from  our  first  principle,  namely,  that  actions 
which  have  often  been  of  direct  or  indirect  service,  under 
certain  states  of  the  mind,  in  order  to  gratify  or  relieve 


g2  THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  DIRECT    Chap.  III. 

certain  sensations,  desires,  &c.,  are  still  performed  under 
analogous  circumstances  through  mere  habit  although 
of  no  service.  We  have  combinations  of  this  kind,  at  least 
in  part,  in  the  frantic  gestures  of  rage  and  in  the  writh- 
ings  of  extreme  pain;  and,  perhaps,  in  the  increased  ac- 
tion of  the  heart  and  of  the  respiratory  organs.  Even 
when  these  and  other  emotions  or  sensations  are  aroused 
in  a  very  feeble  manner,  there  will  still  be  a  tendency  to 
similar  actions,  owing  to  the  force  of  long-associated 
habit;  and  those  actions  which  are  least  under  voluntary 
control  will  generally  be  longest  retained.  Our  second 
principle  of  antithesis  has  likewise  occasionally  come  into 
play. 

Finally,  so  many  expressive  movements  can  be  ex- 
plained, as  I  trust  will  be  seen  in  the  course  of  this 
volume,  through  the  three  principles  which  have  now 
been  discussed,  that  we  may  hope  hereafter  to  see  all 
thus  explained,  or  by  closely  analogous  principles.  It  is, 
however,  often  impossible  to  decide  how  much  weight 
ought  to  be  attributed,  in  each  particular  case,  to  one 
of  our  principles,  and  how  much  to  another;  and  very 
many  points  in  the  theory  of  Expression  remain  inex- 
plicable. 


Chap.  IV.  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  IN  ANIMALS.         83 


CHAPTEE  lY. 

Means  of  Expeession  in  Animals. 

The  emission  of  sounds — Vocal  sounds — Sounds  otherwise 
produced — Erection  of  the  dermal  appendages,  hairs, 
feathers,  &c.,  under  the  emotions  of  anger  and  terror 
— The  drawing  back  of  the  ears  as  a  preparation  for 
fighting,  and  as  an  expression  of  anger — Erection  of 
the  ears  and  raising  the  head,  a  sign  of  attention. 

In  this  and  the  following  chapter  I  will  describe,  but 
only  in  sufficient  detail  to  illustrate  my  subject,  the  ex- 
pressive movements,  under  different  states  of  the  mind, 
of  some  few  well-known  animals.  But  before  consider- 
ing them  in  due  succession,  it  will  save  much  useless 
repetition  to  discuss  certain  means  of  expression  common 
to  most  of  them. 

The  emission  of  Sounds. — With  many  kinds  of  ani-- 
mals,  man  included,  the  vocal  organs  are  efficient  in  the 
highest  degree  as  a  means  of  expression.  We  have  seen, 
in  the  last  chapter,  that  when  the  sensorium  is  strongly 
excited,  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  generally  thrown 
into  violent  action;  and  as  a  consequence,  loud  sounds 
are  uttered,  however  silent  the  animal  may  generally 
be,  and  although  the  sounds  may  be  of  no  use.  Hares 
and  rabbits  for  instance,  never,  I  believe,  use  their  vocal 
organs  except  in  the  extremity  of  suffering;  as,  when 
a  wounded  hare  is  killed  by  the  sportsman,  or  when  a 
young  rabbit  is  caught  by  a  stoat.    Cattle  and  horses 


84  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV, 

suffer  great  pain  in  silence;  but  when  this  is  excessive, 
and  especially  when  associated  with  terror,  they  utter 
fearful  sounds.  I  have  often  recognized,  from  a  dis- 
tance on  the  Pampas,  the  agonized  death-bellow  of  the 
cattle,  when  caught  by  the  lasso  and  hamstrung.  It  is 
said  that  horses,  when  attacked  by  wolves,  utter  loud  and 
peculiar  screams  of  distress. 

Involuntary  and  purposeless  contractions  of  the  mus- 
cles of  the  chest  and  glottis,  excited  in  the  above  man- 
ner, may  have  first  given  rise  to  the  emission  of  vocal 
sounds.  But  the  voice  is  now  largely  used  by  many  ani- 
mals for  various  purposes;  and  habit  seems  to  have 
played  an  important  part  in  its  employment  under  other 
circumstances.  Naturalists  have  remarked,  I  believe 
with  truth,  that  social  animals,  from  habitually  using 
their  vocal  organs  as  a  means  of  intercommunication, 
use  them  on  other  occasions  much  more  freely  than  other 
animals.  But  there  are  marked  exceptions  to  this  rule, 
for  instance,  with  the  rabbit.  The  principle,  also,  of  as- 
sociation, which  is  so  widely  extended  in  its  power,  has 
likewise  played  its  part.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  voice, 
from  having  been  habitually  employed  as  a  serviceable 
aid  under  certain  conditions,  inducing  pleasure,  pain, 
rage,  &c.,  is  commonly  used  whenever  the  same  sensa- 
tions or  emotions  are  excited,  under  quite  different  con- 
ditions, or  in  a  lesser  degree. 

The  sexes  of  many  animals  incessantly  call  for  each 
other  during  the  breeding-season;  and  in  not  a  few  cases, 
the  male  endeavours  thus  to  charm  or  excite  the  female. 
This,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been  the  primeval  use  and 
means  of  development  of  the  voice,  as  I  have  attempted 
to  show  in  my  '  Descent  of  Man.'  Thus  the  use  of  the 
vocal  organs  will  have  become  associated  with  the  an- 
ticipation of  the  strongest  pleasure  which  animals  are 
capable  of  feeling.    Animals  which  live  in  society  often 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  85 

call  to  each  other  when  separated,  and  evidently  feel 
much  joy  at  meeting;  as  we  see  with  a  horse,  on  the  re- 
turn of  his  companion,  for  whom  he  has  been  neighing. 
The  mother  calls  incessantly  for  her  lost  young  ones;  for 
instance,  a  cow  for  her  calf;  and  the  young  of  many  ani- 
mals call  for  their  mothers.  When  a  flock  of  sheep  is 
scattered,  the  ewes  bleat  incessantly  for  their  lambs,  and 
their  mutual  pleasure  at  coming  together  is  manifest. 
Woe  betide  the  man  who  meddles  with  the  young  of  the 
larger  and  fiercer  quadrupeds,  if  they  hear  the  cry  of 
distress  from  their  young.  Rage  leads  to  the  violent 
exertion  of  all  the  muscles,  including  those  of  the  voice; 
and  some  animals,  when  enraged,  endeavour  to  strike 
terror  into  their  enemies  by  its  power  and  harshness,  as 
the  lion  does  by  roaring,  and  the  dog  by  growling.  I 
infer  that  their  object  is  to  strike  terror,  because  the  lion 
at  the  same  time  erects  the  hair  of  its  mane,  and  the  dog 
the  hair  along  its  back,  and  thus  they  make  themselves 
appear  as  large  and  terrible  as  possible.  Eival  males 
try  to  excel  and  challenge  each  other  by  their  voices, 
and  this  leads  to  deadly  contests.  Thus  the  use  of  the 
voice  will  have  become  associated  with  the  emotion  of 
anger,  however  it  may  be  aroused.  We  have  also  seen 
that  intense  pain,  like  rage,  leads  to  violent  outcries,  and 
the  exertion  of  screaming  by  itself  gives  some  relief; 
and  thus  the  use  of  the  voice  will  have  become  associ- 
ated with  suffering  of  any  kind. 

The  cause  of  widely  different  sounds  being  uttered 
under  different  emotions  and  sensations  is  a  very  ob- 
scure subject.  Xor  does  the  rule  always  hold  good  that 
there  is  any  marked  difference.  For  instance  with  the 
dog,  the  bark  of  anger  and  that  of  joy  do  not  differ  much, 
though  they  can  be  distinguished.  It  is  not  probable 
that  any  precise  explanation  of  the  cause  or  source  of 
each  particular  sound,  under  different  states  of  the  mind. 


86  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 

will  ever  be  given.  We  know  that  some  animals,  after 
being  domesticated,  have  acquired  the  habit  of  utter- 
ing sounds  which  were  not  natural  to  them.^  Thus  do- 
mestic dogs,  and  even  tamed  jackals,  have  learnt  to  bark, 
which  is  a  noise  not  proper  to  any  species  of  the  genus, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Canis  latraris  of  North  Ameri- 
ca, which  is  said  to  bark.  Some  breeds,  also,  of  the  do- 
mestic pigeon  have  learnt  to  coo  in  a  new  and  quite 
peculiar  manner. 

The  character  of  the  human  voice,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  various  emotions,  has  been  discussed  by  Mr.  Her- 
bert Spencer  -  in  his  interesting  essay  on  Music.  He 
clearly  shows  that  the  voice  alters  much  under  different 
conditions,  in  loudness  and  in  quality,  that  is,  in  reso- 
nance and  timbre,  in  pitch  and  intervals.  No  one  can 
listen  to  an  eloquent  orator  or  preacher,  or  to  a  man  call- 
ing angrily  to  another,  or  to  one  expressing  astonish- 
ment, without  being  struck  with  the  truth  of  Mr.  Spen- 
cer's remarks.  It  is  curious  how  early  in  life  the  modu- 
lation of  the  voice  becomes  expressive.  "With  one  of  my 
children,  under  the  age  of  two  years,  I  clearly  perceived 
that  his  humph  of  assent  was  rendered  by  a  slight  modu- 
lation strongly  emphatic;  and  that  by  a  peculiar  whine 
his  negative  expressed  obstinate  determination.  Mr. 
Spencer  further  shows  that  emotional  speech,  in  all  the 
above  respects  is  intimately  related  to  vocal  music,  and 
consequently  to  instrumental  music;  and  he  attempts 
to  explain  the  characteristic  qualities  of  both  on  physio- 
logical grounds — namely,  on  "the  general  law  that  a 
feeling  is  a  stimulus  to  muscular  action."     It  may  be 


*  See  the  evidence  on  this  head  in  my  '  Variation  of 
Animals  and  Plants  under  Domestication,'  vol.  i.  p.  27. 
On  the  cooing  of  pigeons,  vol.  i.  pp.  154,  155. 

*  '  Essays,  Scientitic,  Political,  and  Speculative,'  1858. 
*  The  Origin  and  Function  of  Music,'  p.  359. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  87 

admitted  that  the  voice  is  affected  through  this  law;  but 
the  explanation  appears  to  me  too  general  and  vague 
to  throw  much  light  on  the  various  differences,  with  the 
exception  of  that  of  loudness,  between  ordinary  speech 
and  emotional  speech,  or  singing. 

This  remark  holds  good,  whether  we  believe  that 
the  various  qualities  of  the  voice  originated  in  speaking 
under  the  excitement  of  strong  feelings,  and  that  these 
qualities  have  subsequently  been  transferred  to  vocal 
music;  or  whether  we  believe,  as  I  maintain,  that  the 
habit  of  uttering  musical  sounds  was  first  developed,  as 
a  means  of  courtship,  in  the  early  progenitors  of  man, 
and  thus  became  associated  with  the  strongest  emotions 
of  which  they  were  capable, — ^namely,  ardent  love,  rival- 
ry and  triumph.  That  animals  utter  musical  notes  is 
familiar  to  every  one,  as  we  may  daily  hear  in  the  sing- 
ing of  birds.  It  is  a  more  remarkable  fact  that  an  ape, 
one  of  the  Gibbons,  produces  an  exact  octave  of  musical 
sounds,  ascending  and  descending  the  scale  by  half- 
tones; so  that  this  monkey  "  alone  of  brute  mammals 
may  be  said  to  sing."  ^  From  this  fact,  and  from  the 
analogy  of  other  animals,  I  have  been  led  to  infer  that 
the  progenitors  of  man  probably  uttered  musical  tones, 
before  they  had  acquired  the  power  of  articulate  speech; 
and  that  consequently,  when  the  voice  is  used  under 
any  strong  emotion,  it  tends  to  assume,  through  the  prin- 
ciple of  association,  a  musical  character.  We  can  plainly 
perceive,  with  some  of  the  lower  animals,  that  the  males 
employ  their  voices  to  please  the  females,  and  that  they 


'  '  The  Descent  of  Man,'  1870,  vol.  ii.  p.  332.  The  words 
quoted  are  from  Professor  Owen.  It  has  lately  been  shown 
that  some  quadrupeds  much  lower  in  the  scale  than  mon- 
keys, namely  Rodents,  are  able  to  produce  correct  musical 
tones:  see  the  account  of  a  sing-ing-  Hesperomys,  by  the 
Rev.  S.  Lock  wood,  in  the  '  American  Naturalist,'  vol.  v. 
Pecember,  1871,  p.  761. 


88 


MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 


themselves  take  pleasure  in  their  own  vocal  utterances; 
but  why  particular  sounds  are  uttered,  and  why  these 
give  pleasure  cannot  at  present  be  explained. 

That  the  pitch  of  the  voice  bears  some  relation  to 
certain  states  of  feeling  is  tolerably  clear.  A  person 
gently  complaining  of  ill-treatment,  or  slightly  suffer- 
ing, almost  always  speaks  in  a  high-pitched  voice.  Dogs, 
w^hen  a  little  impatient,  often  make  a  high  piping  note 
through  their  noses,  which  at  once  strikes  us  as  plain- 
tive; *  but  how  difficult  it  is  to  know  whether  the  sound 
is  essentially  plaintive,  or  only  appears  so  in  this  par- 
ticular case,  from  our  having  learnt  by  experience  what 
it  means!  Eengger,  states^  that  the  monkeys  (Cebus 
azarce),  which  he  kept  in  Paraguay,  expressed  astonish- 
ment by  a  half -piping,  half-snarling  noise;  anger  or  im- 
patience, by  repeating  the  sound  hu  Jiu  in  a  deeper, 
grunting  voice;  and  fright  or  pain,  by  shrill  screams. 
On  the  other  hand,  with  mankind,  deep  groans  and  high 
piercing  screams  equally  express  an  agony  of  pain. 
Laughter  may  be  either  high  or  low;  so  that,  with  adult 
men,  as  Haller  long  ago  remarked,^  the  sound  partakes 
of  the  character  of  the  vowels  (as  pronounced  in  German) 
0  and  A  ;  whilst  with  children  and  women,  it  has  more 
of  the  character  of  E  and  /;  and  these  latter  vowel- 
sounds  naturally  have,  as  Helmholtz  has  shown,  a  higher 
pitch  than  the  former;  yet  both  tones  of  laughter  equally 
express  enjoyment  or  amusement. 

In  considering  the  mode  in  which  vocal  utterances 
express  emotion,  we  are  naturally  led  to  inquire  into 


*  Mr.  Tvlor  ('Primitive  Culture,'  1871,  vol.  i.  p.  166), 
in  his  discussion  on  this  subject,  alludes  to  the  whining 
of  the  dog-. 

»  '  Naturgeschichte  der  Saug-ethiere  von  Paraguay,'  1830, 
s.  46. 

*  Quoted  by  Gratiolet,  *  De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p. 
115. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  89 

the  cause  of  what  is  called  "  expression "  in  music. 
Upon  this  point  Mr.  Litchfield,  who  has  long  attended 
to  the  subject  of  music,  has  been  so  kind  as  to  give  me 
the  following  remarks: — "  The  question,  what  is  the  es- 
sence of  musical  '  expression '  involves  a  number  of  ob- 
scure points,  which,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  are  as  yet 
unsolved  enigmas.  Up  to  a  certain  point,  however,  any 
law  which  is  found  to  hold  as  to  the  expression  of  the 
emotions  by  simple  sounds  must  apply  to  the  more  de- 
veloped mode  of  expression  in  song,  which  may  be  taken 
as  the  primary  type  of  all  music.  A  great  part  of  the 
emotional  effect  of  a  song  depends  on  the  character  of 
the  action  by  which  the  sounds  are  produced.  In  songs, 
for  instance,  which  express  great  vehemence  of  passion, 
the  effect  often  chiefly  depends  on  the  forcible  utterance 
of  some  one  or  two  characteristic  passages  which  demand 
great  exertion  of  vocal  force;  and  it  will  be  frequently 
noticed  that  a  song  of  this  character  fails  of  its  proper 
effect  when  sung  by  a  voice  of  sufficient  power  and  range 
to  give  the  characteristic  passages  without  much  exer- 
tion. This  is,  no  doubt,  the  secret  of  the  loss  of  effect 
so  often  produced  by  the  transposition  of  a  song  from 
one  key  to  another.  The  effect  is  thus  seen  to  depend 
not  merely  on  the  actual  sounds,  but  also  in  part  on  the 
nature  of  the  action  which  produces  the  sounds.  Indeed 
it  is  obvious  that  whenever  we  feel  the  '  expression '  of 
a  song  to  be  due  to  its  quickness  or  slowness  of  move- 
ment— to  smoothness  of  flow,  loudness  of  utterance,  and 
so  on — we  are,  in  fact,  interpreting  the  muscular  actions 
which  produce  sound,  in  the  same  way  in  which  we  in- 
terpret muscular  action  generally.  But  this  leaves  un- 
explained the  more  subtle  and  more  specific  effect  which 
we  call  ihernvsical  expression  of  the  song — the  delight 
given  by  its  melody,  or  even  by  the  separate  sounds  which 
make  up  the  melody.  This  is  an  effect  indefinable  in 
7 


90  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 

language — one  which,  so  far  as  I  am  aware,  no  one  has 
been  able  to  analyse,  and  which  the  ingenious  specula- 
tion of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  as  to  the  origin  of  music 
leaves  quite  unexplained.  For  it  is  certain  that  the 
melodic  effect  of  a  series  of  sounds  does  not  depend  in 
the  least  on  their  loudness  or  softness,  or  on  their  ahso- 
lute  pitch.  A  tune  is  always  the  same  tune,  whether  it 
is  sung  loudly  or  softly,  by  a  child  or  a  man;  whether 
it  is  played  on  a  flute  or  on  a  trombone.  The  purely 
musical  effect  of  any  sound  depends  on  its  place  in  what 
is  technically  called  a  '  scale; '  the  same  sound  produc- 
ing absolutely  different  effects  on  the  ear,  according  as 
it  is  heard  in  connection  with  one  or  another  series  of 
sounds. 

"  It  is  on  this  relative  association  of  the  sounds  that 
all  the  essentially  characteristic  effects  which  are  summed 
up  in  the  phrase  *  musical  expression,'  depend.  But 
why  certain  associations  of  sounds  have  such-and-such 
effects,  is  a  problem  which  yet  remains  to  be  solved. 
These  effects  must  indeed,  in  some  way  or  other,  be  con- 
nected with  the  w^ell-known  arithmetical  relations  be- 
tween the  rates  of  vibration  of  the  sounds  which  form 
a  musical  scale.  And  it  is  possible — but  this  is  merely 
a  suggestion — that  the  greater  or  less  mechanical  facility 
with  which  the  vibrating  apparatus  of  the  human  larynx 
passes  from  one  state  of  vibration  to  another,  may  have 
been  a  primary  cause  of  the  greater  or  less  pleasure  pro- 
duced by  various  sequences  of  sounds." 

But  leaving  aside  these  complex  questions  and  con- 
fining ourselves  to  the  simpler  sounds,  we  can,  at  least, 
see  some  reasons  for  the  association  of  certain  kinds  of 
sounds  with  certain  states  of  mind.  A  scream,  for  in- 
stance, uttered  by  a  young  animal,  or  by  one  of  the 
members  of  a  community,  as  a  call  for  assistance,  will 
naturally  be  loud,  prolonged,  and  high,  so  as  to  pene- 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  91 

trate  to  a  distance.  For  Helmholtz  has  shown '  that, 
owing  to  the  shape  of  the  internal  cavity  of  the  human 
ear  and  its  consequent  power  of  resonance,  high  notes, 
produce  a  particularly  strong  impression.  When  male 
animals  utter  sounds  in  order  to  please  the  females,  they 
would  naturally  employ  those  which  are  sweet  to  the 
ears  of  the  species;  and  it  appears  that  the  same  sounds 
are  often  pleasing  to  widely  different  animals,  owing  to 
the  similarity  of  their  nervous  systems,  as  we  ourselves 
perceive  in  the  singing  of  birds  and  even  in  the  chirping 
of  certain  tree-frogs  giving  us  pleasure.  On  the  other 
hand,  sounds  produced  in  order  to  strike  terror  into  an 
enemy,  would  naturally  be  harsh  or  displeasing. 

Whether  the  principle  of  antithesis  has  come  into 
play  with  sounds,  as  might  perhaps  have  been  expected, 
is  doubtful.  The  interrupted,  laughing  or  tittering 
sounds  made  by  man  and  by  various  kinds  of  monkeys 
when  pleased,  are  as  different  as  possible  from  the  pro- 
longed screams  of  these  animals  when  distressed.  The 
deep  grunt  of  satisfaction  uttered  by  a  pig,  when  pleased 
with  its  food,  is  widely  different  from  its  harsh  scream 
of  pain  or  terror.  But  with  the  dog,  as  lately  remarked, 
the  bark  of  anger  and  that  of  joy  are  sounds  which  by 
no  means  stand  in  opposition  to  each  other;  and  so  it  is 
in  some  other  cases. 

There  is  another  obscure  point,  namely,  whether  the 
sounds  which  are  produced  under  various  states  of  the 
mind  determine  the  shape  of  the  mouth,  or  whether  its 
shape  is  not  determined  by  independent  causes,  and  the 
sound  thus  modified.  When  young  infants  cry  they 
open  their  mouths  widely,  and  this,  no  doubt,  is  neces- 


■^  '  Theorie  Physiologique  de  la  Musique,'  Paris,  1868, 
p.  146.  Helmholtz  has  also  fully  discussed  in  this  pro- 
found work  the  relation  of  the  form  of  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  to  the  production  of  vowel-sounds. 


92  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 

sary  for  pouring  forth  a  full  volume  of  sound;  but  the 
mouth  then  assumes,  from  a  quite  distinct  cause,  an 
almost  quadrangular  shape,  depending,  as  will  hereafter 
be  explained,  on  the  firm  closing  of  the  eyelids,  and  con- 
sequent drawing  up  of  the  upper  lip.  How  far  this 
square  shape  of  the  mouth  modifies  the  wailing  or  cry- 
ing sound,  I  am  not  prepared  to  say;  but  we  know  from 
the  researches  of  Helmholtz  and  others  that  the  form 
of  the  cavity  of  the  mouth  and  lips  determines  the  na- 
ture and  pitch  of  the  vowel  sounds  which  are  produced. 
It  will  also  be  shown  in  a  future  chapter  that,  under 
the  feeling  of  contempt  or  disgust,  there  is  a  tendency, 
from  intelligible  causes,  to  blow  out  of  the  mouth  or 
nostrils,  and  this  produces  sounds  like  pooh  or  pish. 
When  any  one  is  startled  or  suddenly  astonished,  there 
is  an  instantaneous  tendency,  likewise  from  an  intel- 
ligible cause,  namely,  to  be  ready  for  prolonged  exer- 
tion, to  open  the  mouth  widely,  so  as  to  draw  a  deep  and 
rapid  inspiration.  When  the  next  full  expiration  fol- 
lows, the  mouth  is  slightly  closed,  and  the  lips,  from 
causes  hereafter  to  be  discussed,  are  somewhat  protruded; 
and  this  form  of  the  mouth,  if  the  voice  be  at  all  ex- 
erted, produces,  according  to  Helmholtz,  the  sound  of 
the  vowel  0.  Certainly  a  deep  sound  of  a  prolonged 
Oh!  may  be  heard  from  a  whole  crowd  of  people  im- 
mediately after  witnessing  any  astonishing  spectacle. 
If,  together  with  surprise,  pain  be  felt,  there  is  a  tend- 
ency to  contract  all  the  muscles  of  the  body,  including 
those  of  the  face,  and  the  lips  will  then  be  drawn  back; 
and  this  will  perhaps  account  for  the  sound  becoming 
higher  and  assuming  the  character  of  Ah!  or  Ach !  As 
fear  causes  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  to  tremble,  the 
voice  naturally  becomes  tremulous,  and  at  the  same  time 
husky  from  the  dryness  of  the  mouth,  owing  to  the  sali- 
vary glands  failing  to  act.    Why  the  laughter  of  man  and 


Chap.  IV. 


IN  ANIMALS. 


93 


the  tittering  of  monkeys  should  be  a  rapidly  reiterated 
sound,  cannot  be  explained.  During  the  utterance  of 
these  sounds,  the  mouth  is  transversely  elongated  by 
the  corners  being  drawn  backwards  and  upwards;  and 
of  this  fact  an  explanation  will  be  attempted  in  a  future 
chapter.  But  the  whole  subject  of  the  differences  of 
the  sounds  produced  under  different 
states  of  the  mind  is  so  obscure,  that 
I  have  succeeded  in  throwing  hardly 
any  light  on  it;  and  the  remarks  which 
I  have  made,  have  but  little  signifi- 
cance. 

All  the  sounds  hitherto  noticed  de- 
pend on  the  respiratory  organs;  but 
sounds  produced  by  wholly  different 
means  are  likewise  expressive.  Rab- 
bits stamp  loudly  on  the  ground  as  a 
signal  to  their  comrades;  and  if  a  man 
knows  how  to  do  so  properly,  he  may 
on  a  quiet  evening  hear  the  rabbits 
answering  him  all  around.  These  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  some  others,  also  stamp 
on  the  ground  when  made  angry.  Por- 
cupines rattle  their  quills  and  vibrate 
their  tails  when  angered;  and  one  be- 
haved in  this  manner  when  a  live  snake 
was  placed  in  its  compartment.  The 
quills  on  the  tail  are  very  different  from  those  on  the 
body:  they  are  short,  hollow,  thin  like  a  goose-quill, 
with  their  ends  transversely  truncated,  so  that  they  are 
open;  they  are  supported  on  long,  thin,  elastic  foot- 
stalks. Now,  when  the  tail  is  rapidly  shaken,  these 
hollow  quills  strike  against  each  other  and  produce, 
as  I  heard  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Bartlett,  a  peculiar 


Fig.  11.  — Sound -pro- 
ducing quills  from  the 
tail  of  the  Porcupine- 


94: 


MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 


continuous  sound.  We  can,  I  think,  understand  why 
porcupines  have  been  provided,  through  the  modifica- 
tion of  their  protective  spines,  with  this  special  sound- 
producing  instrument.  They  are  nocturnal  animals, 
and  if  they  scented  or  heard  a  prowling  beast  of  prey, 
it  would  be  a  great  advantage  to  them  in  the  dark  to 
give  warning  to  their  enemy  what  they  were,  and  that 
they  were  furnished  with  dangerous  spines.  They  would 
thus  escape  being  attacked.  They  are,  as  I  may  add, 
so  fully  conscious  of  the  power  of  their  weapons,  that 
when  enraged  they  will  charge  backwards  with  their 
spines  erected,  yet  still  inclined  backwards. 

Many  birds  during  their  courtship  produce  diversi- 
fied sounds  by  means  of  specially  adapted  feathers. 
Storks,  when  excited,  make  a  loud  clattering  noise  with 
their  beaks.  Some  snakes  produce  a  grating  or  rattling 
noise.  Many  insects  stridulate  by  rubbing  together  spe- 
cially modified  parts  of  their  hard  integuments.  This 
stridulation  generally  serves  as  a  sexual  charm  or  call; 
but  it  is  Hkewise  used  to  express  different  emotions.® 
Every  one  who  has  attended  to  bees  knows  that  their 
humming  changes  when  they  are  angry;  and  this  serves 
as  a  warning  that  there  is  danger  of  being  stung.  I  have 
made  these  few  remarks  because  some  ^Titers  have  laid 
so  much  stress  on  the  vocal  and  respiratory  organs  as 
having  been  specially  adapted  for  expression,  that  it  was 
advisable  to  show  that  sounds  otherwise  produced  serve 
equally  well  for  the  same  purpose. 

Erection  of  the  dermal  appendages.— 'RsiTdly  any  ex- 
pressive movement  is  so  general  as  the  involuntary  erec- 
tion of  the  hairs,  feathers  and  other  dermal  appendages; 
for  it  is  common  throughout  three  of  the  great  verte- 


'    I    have    g-iven    some    details   on    this    subject   in   my 
Descent  of"  Man,'  vol.  i.  pp.  352,  384. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  95 

brate  classes.  These  appendages  are  erected  under  the 
excitement  of  anger  or  terror;  more  especially  when 
these  emotions  are  combined,  or  quickly  succeed  each 
other.  The  action  serves  to  make  the  animal  appear 
larger  and  more  frightful  to  its  enemies  or  rivals,  and 
is  generally  accompanied  by  various  voluntary  move- 
ments adapted  for  the  same  purpose,  and  by  the  utter- 
ance of  savage  sounds.  Mr.  Bartlett,  who  has  had  such 
wide  experience  with  animals  of  all  kinds,  does  not  doubt 
that  this  is  the  case;  but  it  is  a  different  question  whether 
the  power  of  erection  was  primarily  acquired  for  this  spe- 
cial purpose. 

I  will  first  give  a  considerable  body  of  facts  showing 
how  general  this  action  is  with  mammals,  birds  and  rep- 
tiles; retaining  what  I  have  to  say  in  regard  to  man  for 
a  future  chapter.  Mr.  Sutton,  the  intelligent  keeper 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  carefully  observed  for  me 
the  Chimpanzee  and  Orang;  and  he  states  that  when 
they  are  suddenly  frightened,  as  by  a  thunderstorm,  or 
when  they  are  made  angry,  as  by  being  teased,  their 
hair  becomes  erect.  I  saw  a  chimpanzee  who  was  alarmed 
at  the  sight  of  a  black  coalheaver,  and  the  hair  rose  all 
over  his  body;  he  made  little  starts  forward  as  if  to  at- 
tack the  man,  without  any  real  intention  of  doing  so, 
but  with  the  hope,  as  the  keeper  remarked,  of  frighten- 
ing him.  The  Gorilla,  when  enraged,  is  described  by  Mr. 
Ford  ^  as  having  his  crest  of  hair  "  erect  and  projecting 
forward,  his  nostrils  dilated,  and  his  under  lip  thrown 
down;  at  the  same  time  uttering  his  characteristic  yell, 
designed,  it  would  seem,  to  terrify  his  antagonists."  I 
saw  the  hair  on  the  Anubis  baboon,  when  angered  bris- 
tling along  the  back,  from  the  neck  to  the  loins,  but  not 


•  As  quoted  in  Huxley's  '  Evidence  as  to  Man's  Place 
in  Nature,'  1863,  p.  52. 


96 


MEANS  OF   EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 


on  the  rump  or  other  parts  of  the  body.  I  took  a  stuffed 
snake  into  the  monkey-house,  and  the  hair  on  several 
of  the  species  instantly  became  erect;  especially  on  their 
tails,  as  I  particularly  noticed  with  the  Cercojnthecus 
nictitans.  Brehm  states  '°  that  the  Midas  cedipus  (be- 
longing to  the  x\merican  division)  when  excited  erects 
its  mane,  in  order,  as  he  adds,  to  make  itself  as  frightful 
as  possible. 

With  the  Carnivora  the  erection  of  the  hair  seems  to 
be  almost  universal,  often  accompanied  by  threatening 
movements,  the  uncovering  of  the  teeth  and  the  utter- 
ance of  savage  growls.  In  the  Herpestes,  I  have  seen 
the  hair  on  end  over  nearly  the  whole  body,  including 
the  tail;  and  the  dorsal  crest  is  erected  in  a  conspicu- 
ous manner  by  the  Hyaena  and  Proteles.  The  enraged 
lion  erects  his  mane.  The  bristling  of  the  hair  along 
the  neck  and  back  of  the  dog,  and  over  the  whole  body 
of  the  cat,  especially  on  the  tail,  is  familiar  to  every  one. 
With  the  cat  it  apparently  occurs  only  under  fear;  with 
the  dog,  under  anger  and  fear;  but  not,  as  far  as  I  have 
observed,  under  abject  fear,  as  when  a  dog  is  going  to  be 
flogged  by  a  severe  gamekeeper.  If,  however,  the  dog 
shows  fight,  as  sometimes  happens,  up  goes  his  hair. 
I  have  often  noticed  that  the  hair  of  a  dog  is  particu- 
larly liable  to  rise,  if  he  is  half  angry  and  half  afraid, 
as  on  beholding  some  object  only  indistinctly  seen  in 
the  dusk. 

I  have  been  assured  by  a  veterinary  surgeon  that  he 
has  often  seen  the  hair  erected  on  horses  and  cattle,  on 
which  he  had  operated  and  was  again  going  to  operate. 
When  I  showed  a  stuffed  snake  to  a  Peccary,  the  hair 
rose  in  a  wonderful  manner  along  its  back;  and  so  it 
does  with  the  boar  when  enraged.    An  Elk  which  gored 


^o  must.  Thierleben,  1864,  B.  i.  s.  130. 


CHAf.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  97 

a  man  to  death  in  the  United  States,  is  described  as  first 
brandishing  his  antlers,  squeaUng  with  rage  and  stamp- 
ing on  the  ground;  "  at  length  his  hair  was  seen  to  rise 
and  stand  on  end/'  and  then  he  plunged  forward  to  the 
attack.^^  The  hair  likewise  becomes  erect  on  goats,  and, 
as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Blyth,  on  some  Indian  antelopes.  I 
have  seen  it  erected  on  the  hairy  Ant-eater;  and  on  the 
Agouti,  one  of  the  Rodents.  A  female  Bat,^"  which 
reared  her  young  under  confinement,  when  any  one 
looked  into  the  cage  "  erected  the  fur  on  her  back,  and 
bit  viciously  at  intruding  fingers." 

Birds  belonging  to  all  the  chief  Orders  ruffle  their 
feathers  when  angry  or  frightened.  Every  one  must 
have  seen  two  cocks,  even  quite  young  birds,  preparing 
to  fight  with  erected  neck-hackles;  nor  can  these  feath- 
ers when  erected  serve  as  a  means  of  defence,  for  cock- 
fighters  have  found  by  experience  that  it  is  advantageous 
to  trim  them.  The  male  Euff  (Machetes  pugnax)  like- 
wise erects  its  collar  of  feathers  when  fighting.  When 
a  dog  approaches  a  common  hen  with  her  chickens,  she 
spreads  out  her  wings,  raises  her  tail,  ruffles  all  her  feath- 
ers, and  looking  as  ferocious  as  possible,  dashes  at  the 
intruder.  The  tail  is  not  always  held  in  exactly  the  same 
position;  it  is  sometimes  so  much  erected,  that  the  cen- 
tral feathers,  as  in  the  accompanying  drawing,  almost 
touch  the  back.  Swans,  when  angered,  likewise  raise 
their  wings  and  tail,  and  erect  their  feathers.  They  open 
their  beaks,  and  make  by  paddling  little  rapid  starts  for- 
wards, against  any  one  who  approaches  the  water's  edge 
too  closely.  Tropic  birds  ^^  when  disturbed  on  their  nests 


"  The  Hon.  J.  Caton,  Ottawa  Acad,  of  Nat.  Sciences, 
May,  1868,  pp.  36,  40.  For  the  Capra  ^gagrus,  '  Land  and 
Water,'  1867,  p.  37. 

"  '  Land  and  Water,'  July  20,  1867,  p.  659. 

"  Phaeton  rubricauda:    'Ibis,'  vol.  iii.  1861,  p.  180. 


98 


MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION 


Chap.  IV. 


are  said  not  to  fly  away,  but  "  merely  to  stick  out  their 
feathers  and  scream."  The  Barn-owl,  when  approached 
"  instantly  swells  out  its  plumage,  extends  its  wings  and 
tail,  hisses  and  clacks  its  mandibles  with  force  and  rapid- 
ity." ^*     So  do  other  kinds  of  owls.     Hawks,  as  I  am 


Fig.  12.— Hen  driving  away  a  dog  from  her  chickens. 
Drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  Wood. 

informed  by  Mr.  Jenner  Weir,  likewise  ruffle  their  feath- 
ers, arid  spread  out  their  wings  and  tail  under  similar 
circumstances.  Some  kinds  of  parrots  erect  their  feath- 
ers; and  I  have  seen  this  action  in  the  Cassowary,  when 
angered  at  the  sight  of  an  Ant-eater.  Young  cuckoos 
in  the  nest,  raise  their  feathers,  open  their  mouths 
widely,  and  make  themselves  as  frightful  as  possible. 


"  On  the  Strix  flammm,  Audubon,  '  Ornithological  Bi- 
ography,' 1864,  vol.  ii.  p.  407.  I  have  observed  other  cases 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens. 


Chap.  IV. 


IN  ANIMALS. 


99 


Small  birds,  also,  as  I  hear  from  Mr.  Weir,  such  as 
various  finches,   buntings   and  warblers,   when   angry. 


Fig.  13.— Swan  driving  away  an  intruder.    Drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  Wood. 

ruffle  all  their  feathers,  or  only  those  round  the  neck; 
or  they  spread  out  their  wings  and  tail-feathers.  With 
their  plumage  in  this  state,  they  rush  at  each  other  with 
open  beaks  and  threatening  gestures.  Mr.  Weir  con- 
cludes from  his  large  experience  that  the  erection  of  the 
feathers  is  caused  much  more  by  anger  than  by  fear.  He 
gives  as  an  instance  a  hybrid  goldfinch  of  a  most  irasci- 
ble disposition,  which  when  approached  too  closely  by 
a  servant,  instantly  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  ball  of 
ruffled  feathers.  He  believes  that  birds  when  frightened, 
as  a  general  rule,  closely  adpress  all  their  feathers,  and 
their  consequently  diminished  size  is  often  astonishing. 


100 


MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 


As  soon  as  they  recover  from  their  fear  or  surprise,  the 
first  thing  which  they  do  is  to  shake  out  their  feathers. 
The  best  instances  of  this  adpression  of  the  feathers  and 
apparent  shrinking  of  the  body  from  fear,  which  Mr. 
Weir  has  noticed,  has  been  in  the  quail  and  grass-parra- 
keet.^^  The  habit  is  intelligible  in  these  birds  from 
their  being  accustomed,  when  in  danger,  either  to  squat 
on  the  ground  or  to  sit  motionless  on  a  branch,  so  as  to 
escape  detection.  Though,  with  birds,  anger  may  be 
the  chief  and  commonest  cause  of  the  erection  of  the 
feathers,  it  is  probable  that  young  cuckoos  when  looked 
at  in  the  nest,  and  a  hen  with  her  chickens  when  ap- 
proached by  a  dog,  feel  at  least  some  terror.  Mr.  Teget- 
meier  informs  me  that  with  game-cocks,  the  erection  of 
the  feathers  on  the  head  has  long  been  recognized  in  the 
cock-pit  as  a  sign  of  cowardice. 

The  males  of  some  lizards,  when  fighting  together 
during  their  courtship,  expand  their  throat  pouches  or 
frills,  and  erect  their  dorsal  crests.'^  But  Dr.  Giinther 
does  not  beheve  that  they  can  erect  their  separate  spines 
or  scales. 

We  thus  see  how  generally  throughout  the  two  higher 
vertebrate  classes,  and  with  some  reptiles,  the  dermal 
appendages  are  erected  under  the  influence  of  anger  and 
fear.  The  movement  is  effected,  as  we  know  from  Kolli- 
ker's  interesting  discovery,  by  the  contraction  of  minute, 
unstriped,  involuntary  muscles,^ ^  often  called  arrectores 
pili,  which  are  attached  to  the  capsules  of  the  separate 

"  Mclopsittacus  undnlaUifi.  See  an  account  of  its  habits 
by  GoTiId,  '  Handbook  of  Birds  of  Australia,'  1865,  vol.  ii. 
p".  82. 

^«  See,  for  instance,  the  account  which  I  have  given 
('  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  ii.  p.  32)  of  an  Anolis  and  Draco. 

"  These  muscles  are  described  in  his  well-known 
works.  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  this  distinguished  ob- 
server for  having  given  me  in  a  letter  information  on 
this  same  subject. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  101 

hairs,  feathers,  &c.  By  the  contraction  of  these  muscles 
the  hairs  can  be  instantly  erected,  as  we  see  in  a  dog, 
being  at  the  same  time  drawn  a  little  out  of  their  sockets; 
they  are  afterwards  quickly  depressed.  The  vast  num- 
ber of  these  minute  muscles  over  the  whole  body  of  a 
hairy  quadruped  is  astonishing.  The  erection  of  the  hair 
is,  however,  aided  in  some  cases,  as  with  that  on  the  head 
of  a  man,  by  the  striped  and  voluntary  muscles  of  the 
underlying  panniculus  carnosus.  It  is  by  the  action  of 
these  latter  muscles,  that  the  hedgehog  erects  its  spines. 
It  appears,  also,  from  the  researches  of  Leydig  ^*  and 
others,  that  striped  fibres  extend  from  the  panniculus 
to  some  of  the  larger  hairs,  such  as  the  vibrissse  of  cer- 
tain quadrupeds.  The  arrectores  pili  contract  not  only 
under  the  above  emotions,  but  from  the  application  of 
cold  to  the  surface.  I  remember  that  my  mules  and  dogs, 
brought  from  a  lower  and  warmer  country,  after  spend- 
ing a  night  on  the  bleak  Cordillera,  had  the  hair  all  over 
their  bodies  as  erect  as  under  the  greatest  terror.  We  see 
the  same  action  in  our  own  goose-skin  during  the  chill 
before  a  fever-fit.  Mr.  Lister  has  also  found,^^  that  tick- 
ling a  neighbouring  part  of  the  skin  causes  the  erection 
and  protrusion  of  the  hairs. 

From  these  facts  it  is  manifest  that  the  erection  of 
the  dermal  appendages  is  a  reflex  action,  independent 
of  the  will;  and  this  action  must  be  looked  at,  when, 
occurring  under  the  influence  of  anger  or  fear,  not  as  a 
power  acquired  for  the  sake  of  some  advantage,  but 
as  an  incidental  result,  at  least  to  a  large  extent,  of  the 
sensorium  being  affected.     The  result,  in  as  far  as  it  is 


^*  '  Lehrbuch  der  Histolog-ie  des  Menschen,'  1857,  s. 
82.  I  owe  to  Prof.  W.  Turner's  kindness  an  extract  from 
this  work. 

^  '  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science,'  1853, 
vol.  i.  p.  262. 


102 


MEANS  OP  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 


incidental,  may  be  compared  with  the  profuse  sweating 
from  an  agony  of  pain  or  terror.    Nevertheless,  it  is  re- 
markable how  slight  an  excitement  often  suffices  to  cause 
the  hair  to  become  erect;   as  when  two  dogs  pretend  to 
fight  together  in  play.     We  have,  also,  seen  in  a  large 
number  of  animals,  belonging  to  widely  distinct  classes, 
that  the  erection  of  the  hair  or  feathers  is  almost  always 
accompanied    by    various    voluntary    movements— by 
threatening  gestures,  opening  the  mouth,  uncovering  the 
teeth,  spreading  out  of  the  wings  and  tail  by  birds,  and 
by  the  utterance  of  harsh  sounds;    and  the  purpose  of 
these  voluntary  movements  is  unmistakable.    Therefore 
it  seems  hardly  credible  that  the  co-ordinated  erection  of 
the  dermal  appendages,  by  which  the  animal  is  made  to 
appear  larger  and  more  terrible  to  its  enemies  or  rivals, 
should  be  altogether  an  incidental  and  purposeless  result 
of  the  disturbance  of  the  sensorium.    This  seems  almost 
as  incredible  as  that  the  erection  by  the  hedgehog  of  its 
spines,  or  of  the  quills  by  the  porcupine,  or  of  the  orna- 
mental plumes  by  many  birds  during  their  courtship, 
should  all  be  purposeless  actions. 

We  here  encounter  a  great  difficulty.    How  can  the 
contraction  of  the  unstriped  and  involuntary  arredores 
pili  have  been  co-ordinated  with  that  of  various  volun- 
tary muscles  for  the  same  special  purpose?    If  we  could 
believe  that  the  arrectores  primordially  had  been  volun- 
tary muscles,  and  had  since  lost  their  stripes  and  become 
involuntary,  the  case  would  be  comparatively  simple. 
I  am  not,  however,  aware  that  there  is  any  evidence  in 
favour  of  this  view;    although  the  reversed  transition 
would  not  have  presented  any  great  difficulty,  as  the 
voluntary  muscles  are  in  an  unstriped  condition  in  the 
embryos  of  the  higher  animals,  and  in  the  larva?  of  some 
crustaceans.    Moreover  in  the  deeper  layers  of  the  skin 
of  adult  birds,  the  muscular  network  is,  according  to 


Chap.  ir.  IN  ANIMALS.  103 

Leydig/^  in  a  transitional  condition;  the  fibres  exhibit- 
ing only  indications  of  transverse  striation. 

Another  explanation  seems  possible.    We  may  admit 
that  originally  the  arrectores  pili  were  slightly  acted  on 
in  a  direct  manner,  under  the  influence  of  rage  and 
terror,  by  the  disturbance  of  the  nervous  system;  as  is 
undoubtedly  the  case    with  our  so-called  goose-shin  be- 
fore a  fever-fit.     Animals  have  been  repeatedly  excited 
by  rage  and  terror  during  many  generations;   and  con- 
sequently the  direct  effects  of  the  disturbed  nervous 
system  on  the  dermal  appendages  will  almost  certainly 
have  been  increased  through  habit  and  through  the  tend- 
ency of  nerve-force  to  pass  readily  along  accustomed 
channels.    We  shall  find  this  view  of  the  force  of  habit 
strikingly  confirmed  in  a  future  chapter,  where  it  will 
be  shown  that  the  hair  of  the  insane  is  affected  in  an 
extraordinary  manner,  owing  to  their  repeated  accesses 
of  fury  and  terror.    As  soon  as  with  animals  the  power 
of  erection  had  thus  been  strengthened  or  increased, 
they  must  often  have  seen  the  hairs  or  feathers  erected 
in  rival  and  enraged  males,  and  the  bulk  of  their  bodies 
thus  increased.    In  this  case  it  appears  possible  that  they 
might  have  wished  to  make  themselves  appear  larger  and 
more  terrible  to  their  enemies,  by  voluntarily  assuming 
a  threatening  attitude  and  uttering  harsh  cries;  such 
attitudes  and  utterances  after  a  time  becoming  through 
habit  instinctive.     In  this  manner  actions  performed 
by  the  contraction  of  voluntary  muscles  might  have  been 
combined  for  the  same  special  purpose  with  those  ef- 
fected by  involuntary  muscles.    It  is  even  possible  that 
animals,  when  excited   and   dimly  conscious   of   some 
change  in  the  state  of  their  hair,  might  act  on  it  bv  re- 
peated exertions  of  their  attention  and  will;  for  we  have 


Lehrbuch  der  Histologic,'  1857,  s.  82. 


-^04  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV, 

reason  to  beUeve  that  the  will  is  able  to  influence  in  an 
obscure  manner  the  action  of  some  unstriped  or  involun- 
tary muscles,  as  in  the  period  of  the  peristaltic  move- 
ments of  the  intestines,  and  in  the  contraction  of  the 
bladder.  Nor  must  we  overlook  the  part  which  varia- 
tion and  natural  selection  may  have  played;  for  the 
males  which  succeeded  in  making  themselves  appear  the 
most  terrible  to  their  rivals,  or  to  their  other  enemies, 
if  not  of  overwhelming  power,  will  on  an  average  have 
left  more  offspring  to  inherit  their  characteristic  quali- 
ties, whatever  these  may  be  and  however  first  acquired, 
than  have  other  males. 

The  inflation  of  the  body,  and  other  means  of  excit^ 
ingfear  in  an  enemy.— Cevi am  Amphibians  and  Eep- 
tiles,  which  either  have  no  spines  to  erect,  or  no  muscles 
by  which  they  can  be  erected,  enlarge  themselves  when 
alarmed  or  angry  by  inhaling  air.     This  is  well  known 
to  be  the  case  with  toads  and  frogs.    The  latter  animal 
is  made,  in  .Esop's  fable  of  the  '  Ox  and  the  Frog,'  to 
blow  itself  up  from  vanity  and  envy  until  it  burst.    This 
action  must  have  been  observed  during  the  most  ancient 
times,  as,  according  to  Mr.  Hensleigh  Wedgwood,^^  the 
word  toad  expresses  in  all  the  languages  of  Europe  the 
habit  of  swelling.    It  has  been  observed  with  some  of  the 
exotic  species  in  the  Zoological  Gardens;  and  Dr.  Gun- 
ther  believes  that  it  is  general  throughout  the  group. 
Judging  from  analogy,  the  primary  purpose  probably 
was^to  make  the  body  appear  as  large  and  frightful  as 
possible  to  an  enemy;  but  another,  and  perhaps  more  im- 
portant secondarv  advantage  is  thus  gained.    When  frogs 
are  seized  by  snakes,  which  are  their  chief  enemies,  they 
enlarge  themselves  wonderfully:  so  that  if  the  snake  be 
of  small  size,  as  Dr.  Giinther  informs  me,  it  cannot  swal- 
low the  frog,  which  thus  escapes  being  devoured. 

'^  '  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,'  p.  403. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  105 

Chameleons  and  some  other  lizards  inflate  themselves 
when  angry.  Thus  a  species  inhabiting  Oregon,  the 
Tapaya  Douglasii^  is  slow  in  its  movements  and  does 
not  bite,  but  has  a  ferocious  aspect;  "  when  irritated 
it  springs  in  a  most  threatening  manner  at  anything 
pointed  at  it,  at  the  same  time  opening  its  mouth  wide 
and  hissing  audibly,  after  which  it  inflates  its  body,  and 
shows  other  marks  of  anger."  ^^ 

Several  kinds  of  snakes  hkewise  inflate  themselves 
when  irritated.  The  puff-adder  (Clotho  arietans)  is  re- 
markable in  this  respect;  but  I  believe,  after  carefully 
watching  these  animals,  that  they  do  not  act  thus  for 
the  sake  of  increasing  their  apparent  bulk,  but  simply 
for  inhaling  a  large  supply  of  air,  so  as  to  produce  their 
surprisingly  loud,  harsh,  and  prolonged  hissing  sound. 
The  Cobras-de-capello,  when  irritated,  enlarge  them- 
selves a  little,  and  hiss  moderately;  but,  at  the  same 
time  they  lift  their  heads  aloft,  and  dilate  by  means  of 
their  elongated  anterior  ribs,  the  skin  on  each  side  of 
the  neck  into  a  large  flat  disk, — the  so-called  hood.  With 
their  widely  opened  mouths,  they  then  assume  a  terrific 
aspect.  The  benefit  thus  derived  ought  to  be  consider- 
able, in  order  to  compensate  for  the  somewhat  lessened 
rapidity  (though  this  is  still  great)  with  which,  when  di- 
lated, they  can  strike  at  their  enemies  or  prey;  on  the 
same  principle  that  a  broad,  thin  piece  of  wood  cannot 
be  moved  through  the  air  so  quickly  as  a  small  round 
stick.  An  innocuous  snake,  the  Tropidonotus  macroph- 
thalmtcs,  an  inhabitant  of  India,  likewise  dilates  its  neck 
when  irritated;  and  consequently  is  often  mistaken  for 
its  compatriot,  the  deadly  Cobra. ^^  This  resemblance 
perhaps  serves  as  some  protection  to  the  Tropidonotus. 

"  See  the  account  of  the  habits  of  this  animal  by  Dr, 
Cooper,  as  quoted  in  '  Nature,'  April  27,  1871,  p.  512. 
»  Dr.  Giinther,  *  Reptiles  of  British  India,'  p.  262. 
8 


106 


MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 


Another  innocuous  species,  the  Dasypeltis  of  South  Afri- 
ca, blows  itself  out,  distends  its  neck,  hisses  and  darts 
at  an  intruder.^*  Many  other  snakes  hiss  under  similar 
circumstances.  They  also  rapidly  vibrate  their  protruded 
tongues;  and  this  may  aid  in  increasing  their  terrific 
appearance. 

Snakes  possess  other  means  of  producing  sounds 
besides  hissing.  Many  years  ago  I  observed  in  South 
America  that  a  venomous  Trigonocephalus,  when  dis- 
turbed, rapidly  vibrated  the  end  of  its  tail,  which  strik- 
ing against  the  dry  grass  and  twigs  produced  a  rattling 
noise  that  could  be  distinctly  heard  at  the  distance  of 
six  feet.^^  The  deadly  and  fierce  Echis  carinata  of  India 
produces  "  a  curious  prolonged,  almost  hissing  sound  " 
in  a  very  different  manner,  namely  by  rubbing  "the 
sides  of  the  folds  of  its  body  against  each  other,"  whilst 
the  head  remains  in  almost  the  same  position.  The 
scales  on  the  sides,  and  not  on  other  parts  of  the  body, 
are  strongly  keeled,  with  the  keels  toothed  like  a  saw; 
and  as  the  coiled-up  animal  rubs  its  sides  together,  these 
grate  against  each  other.-®  Lastly,  we  have  the  well- 
known  case  of  the  Eattle-snake.  He  who  has  merely 
shaken  the  rattle  of  a  dead  snake,  can  form  no  just  idea 
of  the  sound  produced  by  the  living  animal.  Professor 
Shaler  states  that  it  is  indistinguishable  from  that  made 
by  the  male  of  a  large  Cicada  (an  Homopterous  insect), 
which  inhabits  the  same  district.^^     In  the  Zoological 


"  Mr.  J.  Mansel  Weale,  '  Nature,'  April  27,  1871,  p.  508. 

*"  '  Journal  of  Researches  durino-  the  Yoyacre  of  the 
"  Bea^^le,"  '  1845,  p.  96.  I  have  compared  the  rattling-  thus 
produced  with  that  of  the  Rattle-snaVe. 

*«  See  the  account  by  Dr.  Anderson,  Proe.  Zool.  Soc. 
1871,  p.  196. 

"  The  '  American  Naturalist,'  Jan.  1872,  p.  32.  T  regret 
that  I  cannot  follow  Prof.  Shaler  in  believin"-  that  the 
rattle  has  been  developed,  by  the  aid  of  natural  selection, 
for  the  sake  of  producing  sounds  which  deceive  and  at- 
tract birds,  so  that  they  may  serve  as  prey  to  the  snake. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  107 

Gardens,  when  the  rattle-snakes  and  puff-adders  were 
greatly  excited  at  the  same  time,  I  was  much  struck  at 
the  similarity  of  the  sound  produced  by  them;  and  al- 
though that  made  by  the  rattle-snake  is  louder  and 
shriller  than  the  hissing  of  the  puff-adder,  yet  when 
standing  at  some  yards  distance  I  could  scarcely  distin- 
guish the  two.  For  whatever  purpose  the  sound  is  pro- 
duced by  the  one  species,  I  can  hardly  doubt  that  it  serves 
for  the  same  purpose  in  the  other  species;  and  I  conclude 
from  the  threatening  gestures  made  at  the  same  time 
by  many  snakes,  that  their  hissing, — the  rattling  of  the 
rattle-snake  and  of  the  tail  of  the  Trigonocephalus, — 
the  grating  of  the  scales  of  the  Echis, — and  the  dilata- 
tion of  the  hood  of  the  Cobra, — all  subserve  the  same 
end,  namely,  to  make  them  appear  terrible  to  their  ene- 
mies.^* 

It  seems  at  first  a  probable  conclusion  that  venom- 
ous snakes,  such  as  the  foregoing,  from  being  already 
so  well  defended  by  their  poison-fangs,  would  never  be 
attacked  by  any  enemy;    and  consequently  would  have 


I  do  not,  however,  wish  to  doubt  that  the  sounds  may 
occasionally  subserve  this  end.  But  the  conclusion  at 
which  I  have  arrived,  viz,  that  the  rattling-  serves  as  a 
warning-  to  would-be  devourers,  a^Dpears  to  me  much  more 
probable,  as  it  connects  tog-ether  various  classes  of  facts. 
If  this  snake  had  acquired  its  rattle  and  the  habit  of 
rattling",  for  the  sake  of  attracting-  prey,  it  does  not  seem 
probable  that  it  would  have  invariably  used  its  instru- 
ment when  ang-ered  or  disturbed.  Prof.  Shaler  takes 
nearly  the  same  view  as  I  do  of  the  manner  of  develop- 
ment of  the  rattle;  and  I  have  always  held  this  opinion 
since  observing-  the  Trig-onocephalus  in  South  America. 

**  From  the  accounts  lately  collected,  and  g-iven  in 
the  '  JoiTrnal  of  the  Linnean  Society,'  by  Mrs.  Barber, 
on  the  habits  of  the  snakes  of  South  Africa;  and  from 
the  accounts  published  by  several  writers,  for  instance 
by  Lawson,  of  the  rattle-snake  in  North  America, — it 
does  not  seem  improbable  that  the  terrific  appearance 
of  snakes  and  the  sounds  produced  by  them,  may  like- 
wise serve  in  procuring  prey,  by  paralysing-,  or  as  it  is 
sometimes  called  fascinating',  the  smaller  animals. 


108  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION"  Chap.  IV. 

no  need  to  excite  additional  terror.  But  this  is  far  from 
being  the  case,  for  tliey  are  largely  preyed  on  in  all  quar- 
ters of  the  world  by  many  animals.  It  is  well  known 
that  pigs  are  employed  in  t!ie  United  States  to  clear  dis- 
tricts infested  with  raM]  ■  M;;;kes,  which  they  do  most 
effectually.-^  In  Engiaii-.i  Ti:.e  riedgehog  attacks  and  de- 
vours the  vij-vr.  In  In. ha.  as  I  hear  from  Dr.  elerdon, 
several  kinds  cf  -luwk.-,  mid  at  least  one  mammal,  the 
Herpestes,  kill  cohras  vavI  other  vcr;omous  species;  ^*^ 
and  so  it  is  in  South  Africa.  Tiiercfore  it  is  by  no  means 
improbable  that  any  sounds  or  signs  by  which  the  venom- 
ous species  could  instantly  make  thenu>elves  recognized 
as  dangerotis,  would  be  of  more  service  to  them  than  to 
the  innocuous  species  which  would  not  be  able,  if  at- 
tacked^ to  inflict  any  real  injury. 

Having  said  thus  much  about  snakes,  I  am  tempted 
to  add  a  few  remarks  on  the  means  by  which  the  rattle 
of  the  rattle-snake  was  probably  developed.  Various 
animals,  including  some  lizards,  either  curl  or  vibrate 
their  tails  when  excited.  This  is  the  case  with  many 
kinds  of  snakes. ^^     In  the  Zoological  Gardens,  an  in- 

^  Soe  the  account  by  Dr.  R.  Brown,  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc. 
1871,  p.  39.  He  says  that  as  soon  as  a  pig-  sees  a  snalve  it 
rushes  ur-on  it;  and  a  snake  mahes  off  immediately  on 
the  ap])earance  of  a  pig-. 

""  iJr.  Giinther  remarks  ('Reptiles  of  British  India,'  p. 
340)  on  the  destruction  of  cobras  by  the  ichneumon  or 
herpestes,  and  whilst  the  cobras  are  young-  by  the  jung-le- 
fowl.  It  is  \vell  known  that  the  peacock  also  eag-erly  kills 
snakes. 

'^  Prof.  Cope  enumerates  a  number  of  kinds  in  his 
*  Method  of  Creation  of  Orcanic  Tvpes.'  read  before  the 
American  Phil.  Soc,  Df-cember  1.->th,  1S71.  p.  20.  Prof. 
Cope  takes  the  same  yipw  as  I  do  of  the  use  of  the  g-es- 
tures  and  sounds  made  by  snakes.  I  briefly  alluded  to 
this  subject  in  the  last  pdition  o^'  mv  '  Ori<Tin  of  Suf^cios.' 
Since  the  passas-es  in  the  text  above  have  been  print'^d, 
I  have  been  pleas'-^"'  to  find  that  .Nfr.  H<mderson  ('  The 
American  Xatural^st,'  ]May,  1872,  p.  260)  also  taKCs  a  simi- 
lar viev.-  of  the  use  of  the  rattle,  namely  "  in  preventing 
an  attack  from  being-  made." 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  109 

nocuous  species,  the  Coronella  Sayi,  vibrates  its  tail  so 
rapidly  that  it  becomes  almost  invisible.  The  Trigono- 
cephalus,  before  alluded  to,  has  the  same  habit;  and 
the  extremity  of  its  tail  is  a  little  enlarged,  or  ends 
in  a  bead.  In  the  Lachesis,  which  is  so  closely  allied 
to  the  rattle-snake  that  it  was  placed  by  Linnaeus  in 
the  same  genus,  the  tail  ends  in  a  single,  large,  lancet- 
shaped  point  or  scale.  With  some  snakes  the  skin,  as 
Professor  Shaler  remarks,  "  is  more  imperfectly  detached 
from  the  region  about  the  tail  than  at  other  parts  of  the 
body."  ISTow  if  we  suppose  that  the  end  of  the  tail  of 
some  ancient  American  species  was  enlarged,  and  was 
covered  by  a  single  large  scale,  this  could  hardly  have 
been  cast  off  at  the  successive  moults.  In  this  case  it 
would  have  been  permanently  retained,  and  at  each 
period  of  growth,  as  the  snake' grew  larger,  a  new  scale, 
larger  than  the  last,  would  have  been  formed  above  it, 
and  would  likewise  have  been  retained.  The  foundation 
for  the  development  of  a  rattle  would  thus  have  been 
laid;  and  it  would  have  been  habitually  used,  if  the  spe- 
cies, like  so  many  others,  vibrated  its  tail  whenever  it  was 
irritated.  That  the  rattle  has  since  been  specially  devel- 
oped to  serve  as  an  efficient  sound-producing  instrument, 
there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt;  for  even  the  vertebrae  in- 
cluded within  the  extremity  of  the  tail  have  been  altered 
in  shape  and  cohere.  But  there  is  no  greater  improb- 
ability in  various  structures,  such  as  the  rattle  of  the 
rattle-snake, — the  lateral  scales  of  the  Echis, — the  neck 
with  the  included  ribs  of  the  Cobra, — and  the  whole  body 
of  the  puff-adder, — having  been  modified  for  the  sake 
of  warning  and  frightening  away  their  enemies,  than  in 
a  bird,  namely,  the  wonderful  Secretary-hawk  (Gypo- 
gera7ius)  having  had  its  whole  frame  modified  for  the 
sake  of  killing  snakes  with  impunity.  It  is  highly  prob- 
able, judging  from  what  we  have  before  seen,  that  this 


110  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 

bird  would  ruffle  its  feathers  whenever  it  attacked  a 
snake;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  Herpestes,  when  it 
eagerly  rushes  to  attack  a  snake,  erects  the  hair  all  over 
its  body,  and  especially  that  on  its  tail.^^  We  have  also 
seen  that  some  porcupines,  when  angered  or  alarmed  at 
the  sight  of  a  snake,  rapidly  vibrate  their  tails,  thus  pro- 
ducing a  peculiar  sound  by  the  striking  together  of  the 
hollow  quills.  So  that  here  both  the  attackers  and  the 
attacked  endeavour  to  make  themselves  as  dreadful  as 
possible  to  each  other;  and  both  possess  for  this  purpose 
specialised  means,  which,  oddly  enough,  are  nearly  the 
same  in  some  of  these  cases.  Finally  we  can  see  that  if, 
on  the  one  hand,  those  individual  snakes,  which  were 
best  able  to  frighten  away  their  enemies,  escaped  best 
from  being  devoured;  and  if,  on  the  other  hand,  those 
individuals  of  the  attacking  enemy  survived  in  larger 
numbers  which  were  the  best  fitted  for  the  dangerous 
task  of  killing  and  devouring  venomous  snakes; — then 
in  the  one  case  as  in  the  other,  beneficial  variations,  sup- 
posing the  characters  in  question  to  vary,  would  com- 
monly have  been  preserved  through  the  survival  of  the 
fittest. 

Tlie  Drawing  hack  and  pressure  of  the  Ears  to  the 
Head. — The  ears  through  their  movements  are  highly 
expressive  in  many  animals;  but  in  some,  such  as  man, 
the  higher  apes,  and  many  ruminants,  they  fail  in  this 
respect.  A  slight  difference  in  position  serves  to  express 
in  the  plainest  manner  a  different  state  of  mind,  as  we 
may  daily  see  in  the  dog;  but  we  are  here  concerned 
only  with  the  ears  being  drawn  closely  backwards  and 
pressed  to  the  head.  A  savage  frame  of  mind  is  thus 
shown,  but  only  in  the  case  of  those  animals  which  fight 

•»  Mr.  des  Voeux,  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1871,  p.  3. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  HI 

with  their  teeth;  and  the  care  which  they  take  to  pre- 
vent their  ears  being  seized  by  their  antagonists,  accounts 
for  this  position.  Consequently,  through  habit  and  as- 
sociation, whenever  they  feel  slightly  savage,  or  pretend 
in  their  play  to  be  savage,  their  ears  are  drawn  back. 
That  this  is  the  true  explanation  may  be  inferred  from 
the  relation  which  exists  in  very  many  animals  between 
their  manner  of  fighting  and  the  retraction  of  their  ears. 

All  the  Carnivora  fight  with  their  canine  teeth,  and 
all,  as  far  as  I  have  observed,  draw  their  ears  back  when 
feeling  savage.  This  may  be  continually  seen  with  dogs 
when  fighting  in  earnest,  and  with  puppies  fighting  in 
play.  The  movement  is  different  from  the  falling 
down  and  slight  drawing  back  of  the  ears,  when  a  dog 
feels  pleased  and  is  caressed  by  his  master.  The  retrac- 
tion of  the  ears  may  likewise  be  seen  in  kittens  fighting 
together  in  their  play,  and  in  full-grown  cats  when  really 
savage,  as  before  illustrated  in  fig.  9  (p.  58).  Although 
their  ears  are  thus  to  a  large  extent  protected,  yet  they 
often  get  much  torn  in  old  male  cats  during  their  mu- 
tual battles.  The  same  movement  is  very  striking  in 
tigers,  leopards,  &c,,  whilst  growling  over  their  food  in 
menageries.  The  lynx  has  remarkably  long  ears;  and 
their  retraction,  when  one  of  these  animals  is  approached 
in  its  cage,  is  very  conspicuous,  and  is  eminently  expres- 
sive of  its  savage  disposition.  Even  one  of  the  Eared 
Seals,  the  OtariaptisiUa^which  has  very  small  ears,  draws 
them  backwards,  when  it  makes  a  savage  rush  at  the  legs 
of  its  keeper. 

When  horses  fight  together  they  use  their  incisors  for 
biting,  and  their  fore-legs  for  striking,  much  more  than 
they  do  their  hind-legs  for  kicking  backwards.  This 
has  been  observed  when  stallions  have  broken  loose  and 
have  fought  together,  and  may  likewise  be  inferred  from 
the  kind  of  wounds  which  they  inflict  on  each  other. 


-j^^2  MEANS  OF  EXPRESSION  Chap.  IV. 

Every  one  recognizes  the  vicious  appearance  which  the 
drawing  back  of  the  ears  gives  to  a  horse.  This  move- 
ment is  very  different  from  that  of  hstening  to  a  sound 
behind.  If  an  ill-tempered  horse  in  a  stall  is  inclined 
to  kick  backwards,  his  ears  are  retracted  from  habit, 
though  he  has  no  intention  or  power  to  bite.  But  when 
a  horse  throws  up  both  hind-legs  in  play,  as  when  enter- 
ing an  open  field,  or  when  just  touched  by  the  whip,  he 
does  not  generally  depress  his  ears,  for  he  does  not  then 
feel  vicious.  Guanacoes  fight  savagely  with  their  teeth; 
and  they  must  do  so  frequently,  for  I  found  the  hides 
of  several  which  I  shot  in  Patagonia  deeply  scored.  So 
do  camels;  and  both  these  animals,  when  savage,  draw 
their  ears  closely  backwards.  Guanacoes,  as  I  have  no- 
ticed, when  not  intending  to  bite,  but  merely  to  spit  their 
offensive  saliva  from  a  distance  at  an  intruder,  retract 
their  ears.  Even  the  hippopotamus,  when  threatening 
with  its  widely-open  enormous  mouth  a  comrade,  draws 
back  its  small  ears,  just  like  a  horse. 

Now  what  a  contrast  is  presented  between  the  fore- 
/  going  animals  and  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats,  which  never 
!  use  their  teeth  in  fighting,  and  never  draw  back  their 
ears  when  enraged!  Although  sheep  and  goats  appear 
such  placid  animals,  the  males  often  join  in  furious  con- 
tests. As  deer  form  a  closely  related  family,  and  as  I 
did  not  know  that  they  ever  fought  with  their  teeth,  I 
was  much  surprised  at  the  account  given  by  Major  Ross 
King  of  the  Moose-deer  in  Canada.  He  says,  when 
"  two  males  chance  to  meet,  laying  back  their  ears  and 
gnashing  their  teeth  together,  they  rush  at  each  other 
with  appalling  fury."  ^^  But  Mr.  Bartlett  informs  me 
that  some  species  of  deer  fight  savagely  with  their  teeth, 

»*  '  The  Sportsman  and  Naturalist  in  Canada,'  1866,  p.  53. 
p.  53. 


Chap.  IV.  IN  ANIMALS.  113 

so  that  the  drawing  back  of  the  ears  by  the  moose  ac- 
cords with  our  rule.  Several  kinds  of  kangaroos,  kept 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  fight  by  scratching  with  their 
fore-feet  and  by  kicking  with  their  hind-legs;  but  they 
never  bite  each  other,  and  the  keepers  have  never  seen 
them  draw  back  their  ears  when  angered.  Rabbits  fight 
chiefly  by  kicking  and  scratching,  but  they  likewise  bite 
each  other;  and  I  have  known  one  to  bite  off  half  the 
tail  of  its  antagonist.  At  the  commencement  of  their 
battles  they  lay  back  their  ears,  but  afterwards,  as  they 
bound  over  and  kick  each  other,  they  keep  their  ears 
erect,  or  move  them  much  about. 

Mr.  Bartlett  watched  a  wild  boar  quarrelling  rather 
savagely  with  his  sow;  and  both  had  their  mouths  open 
and  their  ears  drawn  backwards.  But  this  does  not 
appear  to  be  a  common  action  with  domestic  pigs  when 
quarrelling.  Boars  fight  together  by  striking  upwards 
with  their  tusks;  and  Mr.  Bartlett  doubts  whether  they 
then  draw  back  their  ears.  Elephants,  which  in  like 
manner  fight  with  their  tusks,  do  not  retract  their  ears, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  erect  them  when  rushing  at  each 
other  or  at  an  enemy. 

The  rhinoceroses  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  fight  with 
their  nasal  horns,  and  have  never  been  seen  to  attempt 
biting  each  other  except  in  play;  and  the  keepers  are 
convinced  that  they  do  not  draw  back  their  ears,  like 
horses  and  dogs,  when  feeling  savage.  The  following 
statement,  therefore,  by  Sir  S.  Baker  ^"^  is  inexplicable, 
namely,  that  a  rhinoceros,  which  he  shot  in  North  Africa, 
"  had  no  ears;  they  had  been  bitten  off  close  to  the  head 
by  another  of  the  same  species  while  fighting;  and  this 
mutilation  is  by  no  means  uncommon." 

Lastly,  with  respect  to  monkeys.    Some  kinds,  which 

"  '  The  Nile  Tributaries  of  Abyssinia,'  1867,  p.  443. 


114:       MEANS  OP  EXPRESSION  IN  ANIMALS.  Chap.  IV, 

have  moveable  ears,  and  which  fight  with  their  teeth — 
for  instance  the  Cercopithecus  ruber — draw  back  their 
ears  when  irritated  just  like  dogs;  and  they  then  have 
a  very  spiteful  appearance.  Other  kinds,  as  the  Inuus 
ecaudatus,  apparently  do  not  thus  act.  Again,  other 
kinds — and  this  is  a  great  anomaly  in  comparison  with 
most  other  animals — retract  their  ears,  show  their  teeth, 
and  jabber,  when  they  are  pleased  by  being  caressed. 
I  observed  this  in  two  or  three  species  of  Macacus,  and 
in  the  Cynopithecus  niger.  This  expression,  owing  to 
our  familiarity  with  dogs,  w^ould  never  be  recognized 
as  one  of  joy  or  pleasure  by  those  unacquainted  with 
monkeys. 

Erection  of  the  Ears. — This  movement  requires  hard- 
ly any  notice.  All  animals  which  have  the  power  of 
freely  moving  their  ears,  when  they  are  startled,  or  when 
they  closely  observe  any  object,  direct  their  ears  to  the 
point  towards  which  they  are  looking,  in  order  to  hear 
any  sound  from  this  quarter.  At  the  same  time  they 
generally  raise  their  heads,  as  all  their  organs  of  sense 
are  there  situated,  and  some  of  the  smaller  animals  rise 
on  their  hind-legs.  Even  those  kinds  which  squat  on 
the  ground  or  instantly  flee  away  to  avoid  danger,  gen- 
erally act  momentarily  in  this  manner,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain the  source  and  nature  of  the  danger.  The  head 
being  raised,  with  erected  ears  and  eyes  directed  for- 
wards, gives  an  unmistakable  expression  of  close  atten- 
tion to  any  animal. 


Chap.  V,         SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS :  DOGS.  115 


CHAPTER  V. 

^    Special  Expressions  of  Animals. 

The  Dog",  various  expressive  movements  of — Cats — Horses 
— Euminants — Monkeys,  their  expression  of  joy  and 
affection — Of  pain — Anger — Astonishment  and  Terror. 

The  Dog. — I  have  already  described  (figs.  5  and  7) 
the  appearance  of  a  dog  approaching  another  dog  with 
hostile  intentions,  namely,  with  erected  ears,  eyes  in- 
tently directed  forwards,  hair  on  the  neck  and  back 
bristling,  gait  remarkably  stiff,  with  the  tail  upright 
and  rigid.  So  familiar  is  this  appearance  to  us,  that 
an  angry  man  is  sometimes  said  "  to  have  his  back  up." 
Of  the  above  points,  the  stiff  gait  and  upright  tail  alone 
require  further  discussion.  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks  ^  that, 
when  a  tiger  or  wolf  is  struck  by  its  keeper  and  is  sud- 
denly roused  to  ferocity,  "  every  muscle  is  in  tensioa, 
and  the  limbs  are  in  an  attitude  of  strained  exertion, 
prepared  to  spring."  This  tension  of  the  muscles  and 
consequent  stiff  gait  may  be  accounted  for  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  associated  habit,  for  anger  has  continually  led 
to  fierce  struggles,  and  consequently  to  all  the  muscles 
of  the  body  having  been  violently  exerted.  There  is  also 
reason  to  suspect  that  the  muscular  system  requires  some 
short  preparation,  or  some  degree  of  innervation,  before 
being  brought  into  strong  action.     My  own  sensations 

^  •  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  1844,  p.  190. 
115 


116  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

lead  me  to  this  inference;  but  I  cannot  discover  that  it 
is  a  conclusion  admitted  by  physiologists.  Sir  J.  Paget, 
however,  informs  me  that  when  muscles  are  suddenly 
contracted  with  the  greatest  force,  without  any  prepara- 
tion, they  are  liable  to  be  ruptured,  as  when  a  man  slips 
unexpectedly;  but  that  this  rarely  occurs  when  an 
action,  however  violent,  is  deliberately  performed. 

With  respect  to  the  upright  position  of  the  tail,  it 
seems  to  depend  (but  whether  this  is  really  the  case  I 
know  not)  on  the  elevator  muscles  being  more  powerful 
than  the  depressors,  so  that  when  all  the  muscles  of  the 
hinder  part  of  the  body  are  in  a  state  of  tension,  the  tail 
is  raised.  A  dog  in  cheerful  spirits,  and  trotting  before 
his  master  with  high,  elastic  steps,  generally  carries  his 
tail  aloft,  though  it  is  not  held  nearly  so  stiffly  as  when 
he  is  angered.  A  horse  when  first  turned  out  into  an 
open  field,  may  be  seen  to  trot  with  long  elastic  strides, 
the  head  and  tail  being  held  high  aloft.  Even  cows  when 
they  frisk  about  from  pleasure,  throw  up  their  tails 
in  a  ridiculous  fashion.  So  it  is  with  various  animals 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens.  The  position  of  the  tail, 
however,  in  certain  cases,  is  determined  by  special 
circumstances;  thus  as  soon  as  a  horse  breaks  into  a 
gallop,  at  full  speed,  he  always  lowers  his  tail,  so 
that  as  little  resistance  as  possible  may  be  offered  to  the 
air. 

When  a  dog  is  on  the  point  of  springing  on  his  an- 
tagonist, he  utters  a  savage  growl;  the  ears  are  pressed 
closely  backwards,  and  the  upper  lip  (fig.  14)  is  retracted 
out  of  the  w^ay  of  his  teeth,  especially  of  his  canines. 
These  movements  may  be  observed  with  dogs  and  pup- 
pies in  their  play.  But  if  a  dog  gets  really  savage  in  his 
play,  his  expression  immediately  changes.  This,  how- 
ever, is  simply  due  to  the  lips  and  ears  being  drawn  back 
with  much  greater  energy.    If  a  dog  only  snarls  at  an- 


Chap.  V. 


DOGS. 


117 


other,  the  lip  is  generally  retracted  on  one  side  alone, 
namely  towards  his  enemy. 

The  movements  of  a  dog  whilst  exhibiting  affection 
towards  his  master  were  described  (figs.  6  and  8)  in  our 
second  chapter.  These  consist  in  the  head  and  whole 
body  being  lowered  and  thrown  into  flexnous  movements, 
with  the  tail  extended  and  wagged  from  side  to  side. 
The  ears  fall  down  and  are  drawn  somewhat  backwards, 
which  causes  the  eyelids  to  be  elongated,  and  alters  the 


Fig.  14.— Head  of  snarling  Dog.    From  life,  by  Mr.  Wood. 


whole  appearance  of  the  face.  The  lips  hang  loosely, 
and  the  hair  remains  smooth.  All  these  movements  or 
gestures  are  explicable,  as  I  believe,  from  their  stand- 
ing in  complete  antithesis  to  those  naturally  assumed 
by  a  savage  dog  under  a  directly  opposite  state  of  mind. 
When  a  man  merely  speaks  to,  or  just  notices,  his  dog, 


2ig  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

we  see  the  last  vestige  of  these  movements  in  a  slight  wag 
of  the  tail,  without  any  other  movement  of  the  body,  and 
without  even  the  ears  being  lowered.  Dogs  also  exhibit 
their  affection  by  desiring  to  rub  against  their  masters, 
and  to  be  rubbed  or  patted  by  them. 

Gratiolet  explains  the  above  gestures  of  affection  in 
the  following  manner:  and  the  reader  can  judge  whether 
the  explanation  appears  satisfactory.  Speaking  of  ani- 
mals in  general,  including  the  dog,  he  says,^  "  C'est  tou- 
jours  la  partie  la  plus  sensible  de  leurs  corps  qui  re- 
cherche les  caresses  ou  les  donne.  Lorsque  toute  la 
longueur  des  flancs  et  du  corps  est  sensible,  I'animal  ser- 
pente  et  rampe  sous  les  caresses;  et  ces  ondulations  se 
propageant  le  long  des  muscles  analogues  des  segments 
jusqu'aux  extremites  de  la  colonne  vertebrale,  la  queue 
se  ploie  et  s'agite."  Further  on,  he  adds,  that  dogs,  when 
feehng  affectionate,  lower  their  ears  in  order  to  exclude 
all  sounds,  so  that  their  whole  attention  may  be  concen- 
trated on  the  caresses  of  their  master! 

Dogs  have  another  and  striking  way  of  exhibiting 
their  affection,  namely,  by  licking  the  hands  or  faces  of 
their  masters.  They  sometimes  lick  other  dogs,  and 
then  it  is  always  their  chops.  I  have  also  seen  dogs  lick- 
ing cats  with  whom  they  were  friends.  This  habit  prob- 
ably originated  in  the  females  carefully  licking  their 
puppies — the  dearest  object  of  their  love — for  the  sake 
of  cleansing  them.  They  also  often  give  their  puppies, 
after  a  short  absence,  a  few  cursory  licks,  apparently 
from  affection.  Thus  the  habit  will  have  become  asso- 
ciated with  the  emotion  of  love,  however  it  may  after- 
wards be  aroused.  It  is  now  so  firmly  inherited  or  in- 
nate, that  it  is  transmitted  equally  to  both  sexes.  A 
female  terrier  of  mine  lately  had  her  puppies  destroyed, 


De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  pp.  187,  218. 


Chap.  V.  DOGS.  119 

and  though  at  all  times  a  very  affectionate  creature,  I  was 
much  struck  with  the  manner  in  which  she  then  tried 
to  satisfy  her  instinctive  maternal  love  by  expending  it 
on  me;  and  her  desire  to  lick  my  hands  rose  to  an  insati- 
able passion. 

The  same  principle  probably  explains  why  dogs, 
when  feeling  affectionate,  like  rubbing  against  their 
masters  and  being  rubbed  or  patted  by  them,  for  from 
the  nursing  of  their  puppies,  contact  with  a  beloved  ob- 
ject has  become  firmly  associated  in  their  minds  with  the 
emotion  of  love. 

The  feeling  of  affection  of  a  dog  towards  his  master 
is  combined  with  a  strong  sense  of  submission,  which  is 
akin  to  fear.  Hence  dogs  not  only  lower  their  bodies  and 
crouch  a  little  as  they  approach  their  masters,  but  some- 
times throw  themselves  on  the  ground  with  their  bellies 
upwards.  This  is  a  movement  as  completely  opposite 
as  is  possible  to  any  show  of  resistance.  I  formerly  pos- 
sessed a  large  dog  who  was  not  at  all  afraid  to  fight  with 
other  dogs;  but  a  wolf -like  shepherd-dog  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, though  not  ferocious  and  not  so  powerful  as 
my  dog,  had  a  strange  influence  over  him.  When  they 
met  on  the  road,  my  dog  used  to  run  to  meet  him,  with 
his  tail  partly  tucked  in  between  his  legs  and  hair  not 
erected;  and  then  he  would  throw  himself  on  the 
ground,  belly  upwards.  By  this  action  he  seemed  to  say 
more  plainly  than  by  words,  "  Behold,  I  am  your  slave." 

A  pleasurable  and  excited  state  of  mind,  associated 
with  affection,  is  exhibited  by  some  dogs  in  a  very  pecul- 
iar manner;  namely,  by  grinning.  This  was  noticed 
long  ago  by  Somerville,  who  says, 

"  And  with  a  courtly  grin,  the  fawning  hound 
Salutes  thee  cow'ring",  his  wide  op'ning-  nose 
Upward  he  curls,  and  his  large  sloe-back  eyes 
Melt  in  soft  blandishments,  and  humble  joy.' 

The  ChasCj  book  1. 


120 


SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 


Sir  W.  Scott'8  famous  Scotch  greyhound,  Maida,  had 
this  habit,  and  it  is  common  with  terriers.    I  have  also 
seen  it  in  a  Spitz  and  in  a  sheep-dog.    Mr.  Kiviere,  who 
has  particularly  attended  to  this  expression,  informs  me 
that  it  is  rarely  displayed  in  a  perfect  manner,  but  is  quite 
common  in  a  lesser  degree.    The  upper  Up  during  the 
act  of  grinning  is  retracted,  as  in  snarling,  so  that  the 
canines  are  exposed,  and  the  ears  are  drawn  backwards; 
but  the  general  appearance  of  the  animal  clearly  shows 
that  anger  is  not  felt.    Sir  C.  Bell '  remarks  "  Dogs,  in 
their  expression  of  fondness,  have  a  slight  eversion  of 
the  lips,  and  grin  and  sniff  amidst  their  gambols,  in  a 
way  that  resembles  laughter."     Some  persons  speak  of 
the  grin  as  a  smile,  but  if  it  had  been  really  a  smile,  we 
should  see  a  similar,  though  more  pronounced,  move- 
ment of  the  lips  and  ears,  when  dogs  utter  their  bark  of 
joy;  but  this  is  not  the  case,  although  a  bark  of  joy  often 
follows  a  grin.    On  the  other  hand,  dogs,  when  playing 
with  their  comrades  or  masters,  almost  always  pretend 
to  bite  each  other;  and  they  then  retract,  though  not 
energetically,  their  lips  and  ears.    Hence  I  suspect  that 
there  is  a  tendency  in  some  dogs,  whenever  they  feel  live- 
ly pleasure  combined  with  affection,  to  act  through  habit 
and  association  on  the  same  muscles,  as  in  playfully  bit- 
ing each  other,  or  their  masters'  hands. 

I  have  described,  in  the  second  chapter,  the  gait  and 
appearance  of  a  dog  when  cheerful,  and  the  marked 
antithesis  presented  by  the  same  animal  when  dejected 
and  disappointed,  mth  his  head,  ears,  body,  tail,  and 
chops  drooping,  and  eyes  dull.  Under  the  expectation 
of  any  great  pleasure,  dogs  bound  and  jump  about  in 
an  extravagant  manner,  and  bark  for  joy.  The  tendency 
to  bark  under  this  state  of  mind  is  inherited,  or  runs  in 


•  *  The  Anatomy  of  ExpresBion,'  1844,  p.  140. 


Chjj>.  V.  DOGS.  121 

the  breed:  greyhounds  rarely  hark,  whilst  the  Spitz-dog 
barks  so  incessantly  on  starting  for  a  walk  with  his  mas- 
ter that  he  becomes  a  nuisance. 

An  agony  of  pain  is  expressed  by  dogs  in  nearly  the 
same  way  as  by  many  other  animals,  namely,  by  howl- 
ing, writhing,  and  contortions  of  the  whole  body. 

Attention  is  shown  by  the  head  being  raised,  with 
the  ears  erected,  and  eyes  intently  directed  towards  the 
object  or  quarter  under  observation.  If  it  be  a  sound 
and  the  source  is  not  known,  the  head  is  often  turned 
obliquely  from  side  to  side  in  a  most  significant  manner, 
apparently  in  order  to  judge  with  more  exactness  from 
what  point  the  sound  proceeds.  But  I  have  seen  a  dog 
greatly  surprised  at  a  new  noise,  turning  his  head  to  one 
side  through  habit,  though  he  clearly  perceived  the 
source  of  the  noise.  Dogs,  as  formerly  remarked,  when 
their  attention  is  in  any  way  aroused,  whilst  watching 
some  object,  or  attending  to  some  sound,  often  lift  up 
one  paw  (fig.  4)  and  keep  it  doubled  up,  as  if  to  make 
a  slow  and  stealthy  approach. 

A  dog  under  extreme  terror  will  throw  himself  down, 
howl,  and  void  his  excretions;  but  the  hair,  I  believe, 
does  not  become  erect  unless  some  anger  is  felt.  I  have 
seen  a  dog  much  terrified  at  a  band  of  musicians  who 
were  playing  loudly  outside  the  house,  with  every  mus- 
cle of  his  body  trembling,  with  his  heart  palpitating  so 
quickly  that  the  beats  could  hardly  be  counted,  and  pant- 
ing for  breath  with  widely  open  mouth,  in  the  same 
manner  as  a  terrified  man  does.  Yet  this  dog  had  not 
exerted  himself;  he  had  only  wandered  slowly  and  rest- 
lessly about  the  room,  and  the  day  was  cold. 

Even  a  very  slight  degree  of  fear  is  invariably  shown 
by  the  tail  being  tucked  in  between  the  legs.    This  tuck- 
ing in  of  the  tail  is  accompanied  by  the  ears  being  drawn 
backwards;  but  they  are  not  pressed  closely  to  the  head, 
9 


222  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

as  in  snarling,  and  they  are  not  lowered,  as  when  a  dog 
is  pleased  or  affectionate.  When  two  young  dogs  chase 
each  other  in  play,  the  one  that  runs  away  always  keeps 
his  tail  tucked  inwards.  So  it  is  when  a  dog,  in  the  high- 
est spirits,  careers  like  a  mad  creature  round  and  round 
his  master  in  circles,  or  in  figures  @f  eight.  He  then 
acts  as  if  another  dog  were  chasing  him.  This  curious 
kind  of  play,  which  must  he  familiar  to  every  one  who 
has  attended  to  dogs,  is  particularly  apt  to  be  excited, 
after  the  animal  has  been  a  little  startled  or  frightened, 
as  by  his  master  suddenly  jumping  out  on  him  in  the 
dusk.  In  this  case,  as  well  as  when  two  young  dogs  are 
chasing  each  other  in  play,  it  appears  as  if  the  one  that 
runs  away  was  afraid  of  the  other  catching  him  by  the 
tail;  but  as  far  as  I  can  find  out,  dogs  very  rarely  catch 
each  other  in  this  manner.  I  asked  a  gentleman,  who 
had  kept  foxhounds  all  his  life,  and  he  applied  to  other 
experienced  sportsmen,  whether  they  had  ever  seen 
hounds  thus  seize  a  fox;  but  they  never  had.  It  appears 
that  when  a  dog  is  chased,  or  when  in  danger  of  being 
struck  behind,  or  of  anything  falling  on  him,  in  all  these 
cases  he  wishes  to  withdraw  as  quickly  as  possible  his 
whole  hind-quarters,  and  that  from  some  sympathy  or 
connection  between  the  muscles,  the  tail  is  then  drawn 
closely  inwards. 

A  similarly  connected  movement  between  the  hind- 
quarters and  the  tail  may  be  observed  in  the  hyaena. 
Mr.  Bartlett  informs  me  that  when  two  of  these  animals 
fight  together,  they  are  mutually  conscious  of  the  won- 
derful power  of  each  other's  jawg,  and  are  extremely 
cautious.  They  well  know  that  if  one  of  their  legs  were 
seized,  the  bone  would  instantly  be  crushed  into  atoms; 
hence  they  approach  each  other  kneeling,  with  their  legs 
turned  as  much  as  possible  inwards,  and  with  their  whole 
bodies  bowed,  so  as  not  to  present  any  salient  point;  the 


Chap.  V.  DOGS.  123 

tail  at  the  same  time  being  closely  tucked  in  between 
the  legs.  In  this  attitude  they  approach  each  other  side- 
ways, or  even  partly  backwards.  So  again  with  deer, 
several  of  the  species,  when  savage  and  fighting,  tuck  in 
their  tails.  When  one  horse  in  a  field  tries  to  bite  the 
hind-quarters  of  another  in  play,  or  when  a  rough  boy 
strikes  a  donkey  from  behind,  the  hind-quarters  and  the 
tail  are  drawn  in,  though  it  does  not  appear  as  if  this 
were  done  merely  to  save  the  tail  from  being  injured. 
We  have  also  seen  the  reverse  of  these  movements;  for 
when  an  animal  trots  with  high  elastic  steps,  the  tail  is 
almost  always  carried  aloft. 

As  I  have  said,  when  a  dog  is  chased  and  runs  away, 
he  keeps  his  ears  directed  backwards  but  still  open;  and 
this  is  clearly  done  for  the  sake  of  hearing  the  footsteps 
of  his  pursuer.  From  habit  the  ears  are  often  held  in 
this  same  position,  and  the  tail  tucked  in,  when  the  dan- 
ger is  obviously  in  front.  I  have  repeatedly  noticed,  with 
a  timid  terrier  of  mine,  that  when  she  is  afraid  of  some 
object  in  front,  the  nature  of  which  she  perfectly  knows 
and  does  not  need  to  reconnoitre,  yet  she  will  for  a  long 
time  hold  her  ears  and  tail  in  this  position,  looking  the 
image  of  discomfort.  Discomfort,  without  any  fear,  is 
similarly  expressed:  thus,  one  day  I  went  out  of  doors, 
just  at  the  time  when  this  same  dog  knew  that  her  dinner 
would  be  brought.  I  did  not  call  her,  but  she  wished 
much  to  accompany  me,  and  at  the  same  time  she  wished 
much  for  her  dinner;  and  there  she  stood,  first  looking 
one  way  and  then  the  other,  with  her  tail  tucked  in  and 
ears  drawn  back,  presenting  an  unmistakable  appear- 
ance of  perplexed  discomfort. 

Almost  all  the  expressive  movements  now  described, 
with  the  exception  of  the  grinning  from  joy,  are  innate 
or  instinctive,  for  they  are  common  to  all  the  individ- 
uals, young  and  old,  of  all  the  breeds.     ^lost  of  them 


124  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS :  Chap.  V. 

are  likewise  common  to  the  aboriginal  parents  of  the 
dog,  namely  the  wolf  and  jackal;  and  some  of  them  to 
other  species  of  the  same  group.  Tamed  wolves  and 
jackals,  when  caressed  by  their  masters,  jump  about  for 
joy,  wag  their  tails,  lower  their  ears,  Uck  their  master's 
hands,  crouch  down,  and  even  throw  themselves  on  the 
ground  belly  upwards.^  I  have  seen  a  rather  fox-like 
African  jackal,  from  the  Gaboon,  depress  its  ears  when 
caressed.  Wolves  and  jackals,  when  frightened,  certain- 
ly tuck  in  their  tails;  and  a  tamed  jackal  has  been  de- 
scribed as  careering  round  his  master  in  circles  and  fig- 
ures of  eight,  like  a  dog,  with  his  tail  between  his  legs. 

It  has  been  stated  ^  that  foxes,  however  tame,  never 
display  any  of  the  above  expressive  movements;  but 
this  is  not  strictly  accurate.  Many  years  ago  I  observed 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  recorded  the  fact  at  the 
time,  that  a  very  tame  English  fox,  when  caressed  by 
the  keeper,  wagged  its  tail,  depressed  its  ears,  and  then 
threw  itself  on  the  ground,  belly  upwards.  The  black 
fox  of  North  America  likewise  depressed  its  ears  in  a 
slight  degree.  But  I  believe  that  foxes  never  lick  the 
hands  of  their  masters,  and  I  have  been  assured  that 
when  frightened  they  never  tuck  in  their  tails.  If  the 
explanation  which  I  have  given  of  the  expression  of 
affection  in  dogs  be  admitted,  then  it  would  appear  that 
animals  which  have  never  been  domesticated — namely 
wolves,  jackals,  and  even  foxes — have  nevertheless  ac- 


*  Many  particulars  are  given  by  Gueldenstadt  in  his 
account  of  the  jackal  in  Nov.  Comm.  Acad.  Sc.  Imp. 
Petrop.  1775,  torn.  xx.  p.  449.  See  also  another  excellent 
account  of  the  manners  of  this  animal  and  of  its  play,  in 
'  Land  and  Water,'  October,  1869.  Lieut.  Annesley,  R.  A., 
has  also  communicated  to  me  some  particulars  with  re- 
spect to  the  jackal.  I  have  made  many  inquiries  about 
w^olves  and  jackals  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  have 
observed  them  for  myself. 

»  '  Land  and  Water,'  November  6,  1869. 


Chap.  V. 


CATS. 


125 


quired,  through  the  principle  of  antithesis,  certain  ex- 
pressive gestures;  for  it  is  not  probable  that  these  ani- 
mals, confined  in  cages,  should  have  learnt  them  by  imi- 
tating dogs. 

Cats. — I  have  already  described  the  actions  of  a  cat 


i 

Fig.  15.— Cat  terrified  at  a  dog.    From  life,  by  Mr.  Wood. 

(fig.  9),  when  feeling  savage  and  not  terrified.  She  as- 
sumes a  crouching  attitude  and  occasionally  protrudes 
her  fore-feet,  with  the  claws  exserted  ready  for  striking. 


126  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  Y. 

The  tail  is  extended,  being  curled  or  lashed  from  side  to 
side.  The  hair  is  not  erected — at  least  it  was  not  so  in 
the  few  cases  observed  by  me.  The  ears  are  drawn  closely 
backwards  and  the  teeth  are  shown.  Low  savage  growls 
are  uttered.  We  can  understand  why  the  attitude  as- 
sumed by  a  cat  when  preparing  to  fight  with  another 
cat,  or  in  any  way  greatly  irritated,  is  so  widely  different 
from  that  of  a  dog  approaching  another  dog  with  hostile 
intentions;  for  the  cat  uses  her  fore-feet  for  striking, 
and  this  renders  a  crouching  position  convenient  or 
necessary.  She  is  also  much  more  accustomed  than  a 
dog  to  lie  concealed  and  suddenly  spring  on  her  prey. 
Xo  cause  can  be  assigned  with  certainty  for  the  tail 
being  lashed  or  curled  from  side  to  side.  This  habit  is 
common  to  many  other  animals — for  instance,  to  the 
puma,  when  prepared  to  spring;  "^  but  it  is  not  common 
to  dogs,  or  to  foxes,  as  I  infer  from  Mr.  St.  John's  ac- 
count of  a  fox  lying  in  wait  and  seizing  a  hare.  We 
have  already  seen  that  some  kinds  of  lizards  and  various 
snakes,  when  excited,  rapidly  vibrate  the  tips  of  their 
tails.  It  would  appear  as  if,  under  strong  excitement, 
there  existed  an  uncontrollable  desire  for  movement  of 
some  kind,  owing  to  nerve-force  being  freely  liberated 
from  the  excited  sensorium;  and  that  as  the  tail  is  left 
free,  and  as  its  movement  does  not  disturb  the  general 
position  of  the  body,  it  is  curled  or  lashed  about. 

All  the  movements  of  a  cat,  when  feeling  affection- 
ate, are  in  complete  antithesis  to  those  just  described. 
She  now  stands  upright,  ^Wth  slightly  arched  back,  tail 
perpendicularly  raised,  and  ears  erected;  and  she  rubs 
her  cheeks  and  flanks  against  her  master  or  mistress. 
The  desire  to  rub  something  is  so  strong  in  cats  under 
this  state  of  mind,  that  thev  mav  often  be  seen  rubbin^]^ 


*  Azara, '  Quadrupedes  du  Paraquay,'  1801,  torn.  i.  p.  136. 


Chap.  V.  CATS.  127 

themselves  against  the  legs  of  ehairs  or  tables,  or  against 
door-posts.  This  manner  of  expressing  affection  prob- 
ably originated  through  association,  as  in  the  case  of 
dogs,  from  the  mother  nursing  and  fondling  her  young; 
and  perhaps  from  the  young  themselves  loving  each 
other  and  playing  together.  Another  and  very  different 
gesture,  expressive  of  pleasure,  has  already  been  de- 
scribed, namely,  the  curious  manner  in  which  young  and 
even  old  cats,  when  pleased,  alternately  protrude  their 
fore-feet,  with  separated  toes,  as  if  pushing  against  and 
sucking  their  mother's  teats.  This  habit  is  so  far  analo- 
gous to  that  of  rubbing  against  something,  that  both 
apparently  are  derived  from  actions  performed  during 
the  nursing  period.  Why  cats  should  show  affection  by 
rubbing  so  much  more  than  do  dogs,  though  the  latter 
delight  in  contact  with  their  masters,  and  why  cats  only 
occasionally  lick  the  hands  of  their  friends,  whilst  dogs 
always  do  so,  I  cannot  say.  Cats  cleanse  themselves  by 
linking  their  own  coats  more  regularly  than  do  dogs. 
On  the  other  hand,  their  tongues  seem  less  well  fitted 
for  the  work  than  the  longer  and  more  flexible  tongues 
of  dogs. 

Gats,  when  terrified,  stand  at  full  height,  and  arch 
their  backs  in  a  well-known  and  ridiculous  fashion. 
They  spit,  hiss,  or  growl.  The  hair  over  the  whole  body, 
and  especially  on  the  tail,  becomes  erect.  In  the  in- 
stances observed  by  me  the  basal  part  of  the  tail  was  held 
upright,  the  terminal  part  being  thrown  on  one  side;  but 
sometimes  the  tail  (see  fig.  15)  is  only  a  little  raised,  and 
is  bent  almost  from  the  base  to  one  side.  The  ears  are 
drawn  back,  and  the  teeth  exposed.  When  two  kittens 
are  playing  together,  the  one  often  thus  tries  to  frighten 
the  other.  From  what  we  have  seen  in  former  chapters, 
all  the  above  points  of  expression  are  intelligible,  except 
the  extreme  arching  of  the  back.    I  am  inclined  to  be- 


128  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

lieve  that,  in  the  same  manner  as  many  birds,  whilst  they 
ruffle  their  feathers,  spread  out  their  wings  and  tail,  to 
make  themselves  look  as  big  as  possible,  so  cats  stand 
upright  at  their  full  height,  arch  their  backs,  often  raise 
the  basal  part  of  the  tail,  and  erect  their  hair,  for  the 
same  purpose.  The  lynx,  when  attacked,  is  said  to  arch 
its  back,  and  is  thus  figured  by  Brehm.  But  the  keepers 
in  the  Zoological  Gardens  have  never  seen  any  tendency 
to  this  action  in  the  larger  feline  animals,  such  as  tigers, 
lions,  &c.;  and  these  have  little  cause  to  be  afraid  of  any 
other  animal. 

Cats  use  their  voices  much  as  a  means  of  expression, 
and  they  utter,  under  various  emotions  and  desires,  at 
least  six  or  seven  different  sounds.  The  purr  of  satis- 
faction, which  is  made  during  both  inspiration  and  ex- 
piration, is  one  of  the  most  curious.  The  puma,  cheetah, 
and  ocelot  likewise  purr;  but  the  tiger,  when  pleased, 
"  emits  a  peculiar  short  snuffle,  accompanied  by  the  clos- 
ure of  the  eyelids."  ^  It  is  said  that  the  lion,  jaguar, 
and  leopard,  do  not  purr. 

Horses. — Horses  when  savage  draw  their  ears  closely 
back,  protrude  their  heads,  and  partially  uncover  their 
incisor  teeth,  ready  for  biting.  When  inclined  to  kick 
behind,  they  generally,  through  habit,  draw  back  their 
ears;  and  their  eyes  are  turned  backwards  in  a  peculiar 
manner.*  When  pleased,  as  when  some  coveted  food  is 
brought  to  them  in  the  stable,  they  raise  and  draw  in 
their  heads,  prick  their  ears,  and  looking  intently  to- 
wards their  friend,  often  whinny.  Impatience  is  ex- 
pressed by  pawing  the  ground. 

^  '  Land  and  Water,'  1867,  p.  657.  See  also  Azara  on  the 
Puma,  in  the  work  above  quoted. 

^  Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit,  p.  123. 
See  also  p.  126,  on  horses  not  breathing-  throug-h  their 
mouths,  with  reference  to  their  distended  nostrils. 


Chap.  V.  RUMINANTS.  129 

The  actions  of  a  horse  when  much  startled  are  highly 
expressive.  One  day  my  horse  was  much  frightened 
at  a  drilling  machine,  covered  by  a  tarpaulin,  and  lying 
on  an  open  field.  He  raised  his  head  so  high,  that  his 
neck  became  almost  perpendicular;  and  this  he  did  from 
habit,  for  the  machine  lay  on  a  slope  below,  and  could 
not  have  been  seen  with  more  distinctness  throucrh  the 
raising  of  the  head;  nor  if  any  sound  had  proceeded 
from  it,  could  the  sound  have  been  more  distinctly  heard. 
His  eyes  and  ears  were  directed  intently  forwards;  and  I 
could  feel  through  the  saddle  the  palpitations  of  his 
heart.  With  red  dilated  nostrils  he  snorted  violently, 
and  whirling  round,  would  have  dashed  off  at  full  speed, 
had  I  not  prevented  him.  The  distension  of  the  nostrils 
is  not  for  the  sake  of  scenting  the  source  of  danger,  for 
when  a  horse  smells  carefully  at  any  object  and  is  not 
alarmed,  he  does  not  dilate  his  nostrils.  Owing  to  the 
presence  of  a  valve  in  the  throat,  a  horse  when  panting 
does  not  breathe  through  his  open  mouth,  but  through 
his  nostrils;  and  these  consequently  have  become  en- 
dowed with  great  powers  of  expansion.  This  expansion 
of  the  nostrils,  as  well  as  the  snorting,  and  the  palpita- 
tions of  the  heart,  are  actions  which  have  become  firmly 
associated  during  a  long  series  of  generations  with  the 
emotion  of  terror;  for  terror  has  habitually  led  the  horse 
to  the  most  violent  exertion  in  dashing  away  at  full  speed 
from  the  cause  of  danger. 

Ruminants. — Cattle  and  sheep  are  remarkable  from 
displa3dng  in  so  slight  a  degree  their  emotions  or  sen- 
sations, excepting  that  of  extreme  pain.  A  bull  when 
enraged  exhibits  his  rage  only  by  the  manner  in  which 
he  holds  his  lowered  head,  with  distended  nostrils,  and 
by  bellowing.  He  also  often  paws  the  ground;  but 
this  pawing  seems  quite  different  from  that  of  an  im- 


130  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

patient  horse,  for  when  the  soil  is  loose,  he  throws  up 
clouds  of  dust.  I  believe  that  bulls  act  in  this  manner 
when  irritated  by  flies,  for  the  sake  of  driving  them 
away.  The  wilder  breeds  of  sheep  and  the  chamois 
when  startled  stamp  on  the  ground,  and  whistle  through 
their  noses;  and  this  serves  as  a  danger-signal  to  their 
comrades.  The  musk-ox  of  the  Arctic  regions,  when 
encountered,  likewise  stamps  on  the  ground.^  How  this 
stamping  action  arose  I  cannot  conjecture;  for  from  in- 
quiries which  I  have  made  it  does  not  appear  that  any 
of  these  animals  fight  with  their  fore-legs. 

Some  species  of  deer,  when  savage,  display  far  more 
expression  than  do  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats,  for,  as  has 
already  been  stated,  they  draw  back  their  ears,  grind 
their  teeth,  erect  their  hair,  squeal,  stamp  on  the  ground, 
and  brandish  their  horns.  One  day  in  the  Zoological 
Gardens,  the  Formosan  deer  {Cervus  pseudaxis)  ap- 
proached me  in  a  curious  attitude,  with  his  muzzle 
raised  high  up,  so  that  the  horns  were  pressed  back  on 
his  neck;  the  head  being  held  rather  obliquely.  From 
the  expression  of  his  eye  I  felt  sure  that  he  was  savage; 
he  approached  slowly,  and  as  soon  as  he  came  close  to 
the  iron  bars,  he  did  not  lower  his  head  to  butt  at  me, 
but  suddenly  bent  it  inwards,  and  struck  his  horns  with 
great  force  against  the  railings.  Mr.  Bartlett  informs 
me  that  some  other  species  of  deer  place  themselves  in 
the  same  attitude  when  enraged. 

Monkeys. — The  various  species  and  genera  of  mon- 
keys express  their  feelings  in  many  different  ways;  and 
this  fact  is  interesting,  as  in  some  degree  bearing  on  the 
question,  whether  the  so-called  races  of  man  should  be 
ranked  as  distinct  species  or  varieties;  for,  as  we  shall 

•  •  Land  and  Water,'  1869,  p.  152. 


Chap.  V.  MONKEYS.  131 

see  in  the  following  chapters,  the  different  races  of  man 
express  their  emotions  and  sensations  with  remarkable 
uniformity  throughout  the  world.  Some  of  the  expres- 
sive actions  of  monke^^s  are  interesting  in  another  way, 
namely  from  being  closely  analogous  to  those  of  man.  As 
I  have  had  no  opportunity  of  observing  any  one  species 
of  the  group  under  all  circumstances,  my  miscellaneous 
remarks  will  be  best  arranged  under  different  states  of 
the  mind. 

Pleasure^  joy ^  affection. — It  is  not  possible  to  distin- 
guish in  monkeys,  at  least  without  more  experience  than 
I  have  had,  the  expression  of  pleasure  or  joy  from  that 
of  affection.  Young  chimpanzees  make  a  kind  of  bark- 
ing noise,  when  pleased  by  the  return  of  any  one  to  whom 
they  are  attached.  When  this  noise,  which  the  keepers 
call  a  laugh,  is  uttered,  the  lips  are  protruded;  but  so 
they  are  under  various  other  emotions.  Nevertheless 
I  could  perceive  that  when  they  were  pleased  the  form 
of  the  lips  differed  a  little  from  that  assumed  when  they 
were  angered.  If  a  young  chimpanzee  be  tickled — and 
the  armpits  are  particularly  sensitive  to  tickling,  as  in 
the  case  of  our  children, — a  more  decided  chuckling  or 
laughing  sound  is  uttered;  though  the  laughter  is  some- 
times noiseless.  The  corners  of  the  mouth  are  then 
drawn  backwards;  and  this  sometimes  causes  the  lower 
eyelids  to  be  slightly  wrinkled.  But  this  wrinkling, 
which  is  so  characteristic  of  our  own  laughter,  is  more 
plainly  seen  in  some  other  monkeys.  The  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw  in  the  chimpanzee  are  not  exposed  when  they 
utter  their  laughing  noise,  in  which  respect  they  differ 
from  us.  But  their  eyes  sparkle  and  grow  brighter,  as 
Mr.  W.  L.  Martin,^^  who  has  particularly  attended  to 
their  expression,  states. 

"  '  Natural  History  of  Mammalia,'  1841,  vol.  i.  pp.  383, 
410. 


132  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

Young  Orangs,  when  tickled,  likewise  grin  and  make 
a  chuckling  sound;  and  Mr.  Martin  says  that  their  eyes 
grow  brighter.  As  soon  as  their  laughter  ceases,  an  ex- 
pression may  be  detected  passing  over  their  faces,  which, 
as  Mr.  Wallace  remarked  to  me,  may  be  called  a  smile. 
I  have  also  noticed  something  of  the  same  kind  with 
the  chimpanzee.  Dr.  Duchenne — and  I  cannot  quote  a 
better  authority — informs  me  that  he  kept  a  very  tame 
monkey  in  his  house  for  a  year;  and  when  he  gave  it  dur- 
ing meal-times  some  choice  delicacy,  he  observed  that 
the  corners  of  its  mouth  were  slightly  raised;  thus  an 
expression  of  satisfaction,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  an 
incipient  smile,  and  resembling  that  often  seen  on  the 
face  of  man,  could  be  plainly  perceived  in  this  animal. 

The  Cehus  azarce}^  when  rejoiced  at  again  seeing  a 
beloved  person,  utters  a  peculiar  tittering  {kichernden) 
sound.  It  also  expresses  agreeable  sensations,  by  drawing 
back  the  corners  of  its  mouth,  without  producing  any 
sound.  Eengger  calls  this  movement  laughter,  but  it 
would  be  more  appropriately  called  a  smile.  The  form 
of  the  mouth  is  different  when  either  pain  or  terror  is 
expressed,  and  high  shrieks  are  uttered.  Another  spe- 
cies of  Cebus  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  (C.  hypoleucus) 
when  pleased,  makes  a  reiterated  shrill  note,  and  likewise 
draws  back  the  corners  of  its  mouth,  apparently  through 
the  contraction  of  the  same  muscles  as  with  us.  So  does 
the  Barbary  ape  (Inuus  ecaudatus)  to  an  extraordinary 
degree;  and  I  observed  in  this  monkey  that  the  skin  of 
the  lower  eyelids  then  became  much  wrinkled.  At  the 
same  time  it  rapidly  moved  its  lower  jaw  or  lips  in  a 
spasmodic  manner,  the  teeth  being  exposed;  but  the 
noise  produced  was  hardly  more  distinct  than  that  which 

"  Eengger  ('  Saugetheire  von  Paraquay',  1830,  s.  46) 
kept  these  monkeys  in  confinement  for  seven  years  in 
their  native  country  of  Paraguay. 


Chap.  V.  MONKEYS.  133 

we  sometimes  call  silent  laughter.  Two  of  the  keepers 
affirmed  that  this  slight  sound  was  the  animal's  laughter, 
and  when  I  expressed  some  doubt  on  this  head  (being  at 
the  time  quite  inexperienced),  they  made  it  attack  or 
rather  threaten  a  hated  Entellus  monkey,  living  in  the 
same  compartment.  Instantly  the  whole  expression  of 
the  face  of  the  Inuus  changed;  the  mouth  was  opened 
much  more  widely,  the  canine  teeth  were  more  fully 
exposed,  and  a  hoarse  barking  noise  was  uttered. 

The  Anubis  baboon  {Cyjiocephalus  anuhis)  was  first 
insulted  and  put  into  a  furious  rage,  as  was  easily  done, 
by  his  keeper,  who  then  made  friends  with  him  and 
shook  hands.  As  the  reconciliation  was  effected  the  ba- 
boon rapidly  moved  up  and  down  his  jaws  and  lips,  and 
looked  pleased.  When  we  laugh  heartily,  a  similar  move- 
ment, or  quiver,  may  be  observed  more  or  less  distinctly 
in  our  jaws;  but  with  man  the  muscles  of  the  chest  are 
more  particularly  acted  on,  whilst  with  this  baboon,  and 
with  some  other  monkeys,  it  is  the  muscles  of  the  jaws 
and  lips  which  are  spasmodically  affected. 

I  have  already  had  occasion  to  remark  on  the  curious 
manner  in  which  two  or  three  species  of  Macacus  and 
the  Cynopithecus  niger  draw  back  their  ears  and  utter  a 
slight  jabbering  noise,  when  they  are  pleased  by  being 
caressed.  With  the  Cynopithecus  (fig.  17),  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  are  at  the  same  time  drawn  backwards 
and  upwards,  so  that  the  teeth  are  exposed.  Hence  this 
expression  would  never  be  recognized  by  a  stranger  as 
one  of  pleasure.  The  crest  of  long  hairs  on  the  forehead 
is  depressed,  and  apparently  the  whole  skin  of  the  head 
drawn  backwards.  The  eyebrows  are  thus  raised  a  little, 
and  the  eyes  assume  a  staring  appearance.  The  lower 
eyelids  also  become  slightly  wrinkled;  but  this  wrin- 
kling is  not  conspicuous,  owing  to  the  permanent  trans- 
verse furrows  on  the  face. 


134  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

Painful  emotions  and  sensations. — With  monkeys 
the  expression  of  slight  pain,  or  of  any  painful  emotion, 
such  as  grief,  vexation,  Jealousy,  &c.,  is  not  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  moderate  anger;  and  these  states 
of  mind  readily  and  quickly  pass  into  each  other.  Grief, 
however,  with  some  species  is  certainly  exhibited  by 
"weeping.  A  woman,  who  sold  a  monkey  to  the  Zoological 
Society,  beheved  to  have  come  from  Borneo  (Macacus 
7naurus  or  M.  inor7iatus  of  Gray),  said  that  it  often  cried; 
and  Mr.  Bartlett,  as  well  as  the  keeper  Mr.  Sutton,  have 
repeatedly  seen  it,  when  grieved,  or  even  when  much 
pitied,  weeping  so  copiously  that  the  tears  rolled  down 
its  cheeks.  There  is,  however,  something  strange  about 
this  case,  for  two  specimens  subsequently  kept  in  the 
Gardens,  and  believed  to  be  the  same  species,  have  never 
been  seen  to  weep,  though  they  were  carefully  observed 
by  the  keeper  and  myself  when  much  distressed  and 
loudly  screaming.  Eengger  states  ^^  that  the  eyes  of  the 
Cebus  azarcB  fill  with  tears,  but  not  sufficiently  to  over- 
flow, when  it  is  prevented  getting  some  much  desired 
object,  or  is  much  frightened.  Humboldt  also  asserts 
that  the  eyes  of  the  Callithrix  sciureus  "  instantly  fill 
with  tears  when  it  is  seized  with  fear;  "  but  when  this 
pretty  little  monkey  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  was 
teased,  so  as  to  cry  out  loudly,  this  did  not  occur.  I  do 
not,  however,  wish  to  throw  the  least  doubt  on  the  a<3- 
curacy  of  Humboldt's  statement. 

The  appearance  of  dejection  in  young  orangs  and 
chimpanzees,  when  out  of  health,  is  as  plain  and  almost 
as  pathetic  as  in  the  case  of  our  children.  This  state  of 
mind  and  body  is  shown  by  their  listless  movements, 
fallen  countenances,  dull  eyes,  and  changed  complexion. 


"    Renggfer,    ibid.    s.    46.    Humboldt,    '  Personal    Narra- 
tive,' Eng.  translat.  vol.  iv.  p.  527. 


Chap.  V. 


MONKEYS. 


135 


Fig.  16.—Cynopithecus  niger,  in  a  placid  condition. 
Drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  Wolf. 


FiQ.  17.— The  iame,  when  pleased  by  being  caresBed. 


136  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

Anger. — This  emotion  is  often  exhibited  by  many 
kinds  of  monkeys,  and  is  expressed,  as  Mr.  Martin  re- 
marks,^^  in  many  different  ways.  "  Some  species,  when 
irritated,  pout  the  lips,  gaze  with  a  fixed  and  savage  glare 
on  their  foe,  and  make  repeated  short  starts  as  if  about 
to  spring  forward,  uttering  at  the  same  time  inward  gut- 
tural sounds.  Many  display  their  anger  by  suddenly 
advancing,  making  abrupt  starts,  at  the  same  time  open- 
ing the  mouth  and  pursing  up  the  lips,  so  as  to  conceal 
the  teeth,  while  the  eyes  are  daringly  fixed  on  the  enemy, 
as  if  in  savage  defiance.  Some  again,  and  principally 
the  long-tailed  monkeys,  or  Guenons,  display  their  teeth, 
and  accompany  their  malicious  grins  with  a  sharp, 
abrupt,  reiterated  cry."  Mr.  Sutton  confirms  the  state- 
ment that  some  species  uncover  their  teeth  when  en- 
raged, whilst  others  conceal  them  by  the  protrusion  of 
their  lips;  and  some  kinds  draw  back  their  ears.  The 
Cynopithecus  niger^  lately  referred  to,  acts  in  this  man- 
ner, at  the  same  time  depressing  the  crest  of  hair  on  its 
forehead,  and  showing  its  teeth;  so  that  the  movements 
of  the  features  from  anger  are  nearly  the  same  as  those 
from  pleasure;  and  the  two  expressions  can  be  distin- 
guished only  by  those  familiar  with  the  animal. 

Baboons  often  show  their  passion  and  threaten  their 
enemies  in  a  very  odd  manner,  namely,  by  opening  their 
mouths  widely  as  in  the  act  of  yawning.  Mr.  Bartlett 
has  often  seen  two  baboons,  when  first  placed  in  the 
same  compartment,  sitting  opposite  to  each  other  and 
thus  alternately  opening  their  mouths;  and  this  action 
seems  frequently  to  end  in  a  real  yawn.  Mr.  Bartlett 
believes  that  both  animals  wish  to  show  to  each  other 
that  they  are  provided  with  a  formidable  set  of  teeth,  as 
is  undoubtedly  the  case.    As  I  could  hardly  credit  the 

"  Nat.  Hist,  of  Mammalia,  1841,  p.  351. 


Chap.  V.  MONKEYS.  13Y 

reality  of  this  yawning  gesture,  Mr.  Bartlett  insulted 
an  old  baboon  and  put  him  into  a  violent  passion;  and 
he  almost  immediately  thus  acted.  Some  species  of 
Macacus  and  of  Cercopithecus  ^*  behave  in  the  same 
manner.  Baboons  likewise  show  their  anger,  as  was  ob- 
served by  Brehm  with  those  which  he  kept  alive  in  Abys- 
sinia, in  another  manner,  namely,  by  striking  the  ground 
with  one  hand,  "  like  an  angry  man  striking  the  table 
with  his  fist."  I  have  seen  this  movement  with  the  ba- 
boons in  the  Zoological  Gardens;  but  sometimes  the 
action  seems  rather  to  represent  the  searching  for  a  stone 
or  other  object  in  their  beds  of  straw. 

Mr.  Sutton  has  often  observed  the  face  of  the  Maca- 
cus rhesus^  when  much  enraged,  growing  red.  As  he  was 
mentioning  this  to  me,  another  monkey  attacked  a  rhe- 
sus, and  I  saw  its  face  redden  as  plainly  as  that  of  a  man 
in  a  violent  passion.  In  the  course  of  a  few  minutes, 
after  the  battle,  the  face  of  this  monkey  recovered  its 
natural  tint.  At  the  same  time  that  the  face  reddened, 
the  naked  posterior  part  of  the  body,  which  is  always 
red,  seemed  to  grow  still  redder;  but  I  cannot  positively 
assert  that  this  was  the  case.  When  the  Mandrill  is  in 
any  way  excited,  the  brilliantly  coloured,  naked  parts 
of  the  skin  are  said  to  become  still  more  vividly  coloured. 

With  several  species  of  baboons  the  ridge  of  the  fore- 
head projects  much  over  the  eyes,  and  is  studded  with 
a  few  long  hairs,  representing  our  eyebrows.  These 
animals  are  always  looking  about  them,  and  in  order  to 
look  upwards  they  raise  their  eyebrows.  They  have 
thus,  as  it  would  appear,  acquired  the  habit  of  frequently 
moving  their  eyebrows.  However  this  may  be,  many 
kinds  of  monkeys,  especially  the  baboons,  when  angered 


"  Brehm,  '  Thierleben,'  B.  i.  s.  84.     On  baboons  strik- 
ing the  ground,  s.  61. 
10 


138 


SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chai-.  V. 


or  in  any  way  excited,  rapidly  and  incessantly  move  their 
eyebrows  np  and  down,  as  well  as  the  hairy  skin  of  their 
foreheads.^^    As  we  associate  in  the  case  of  man  the  rais- 
ing and  lowering  of  the  eyebrows  with  definite  states  of 
the  mind,  the  almost  incessant  movement  of  the  eye- 
brows by  monkeys  gives  them  a  senseless  expression.    I 
once  observed  a  man  who  had  a  trick  of  continually  rais- 
ing his  eyebrows  without  any  corresponding  emotion, 
and  this  gave  to  him  a  foolish  appearance;  so  it  is  with 
some  persons  who  keep  the  corners  of  their  mouths  a  lit- 
tle drawn  backwards  and  upwards,  as  if  by  an  incipient 
smile,  though  at  the  time  they  are  not  amused  or  pleased. 
A  young  orang,  made  jealous  by  her  keeper  attending 
to  another  monkey,  slightly  imcovered  her  teeth,  and, 
uttering  a  peevish  noise  like  tish-shist,  turned  her  back 
on  him.     Both  orangs  and  chimpanzees,  when  a  Uttle 
more  angered,  protrude  their  lips  greatly,  and  make  a 
harsh  barking  noise.    A  young  female  chimpanzee,  in  a 
violent  passion,  presented  a  curious  resemblance  to  a 
child  in  the  same  state.    She  screamed  loudly  with  widely 
open  mouth,  the  lips  being  retracted  so  that  the  teeth 
were  fully  exposed.     She  threw  her  arms  wildly  about, 
sometimes  clasping  them  over  her  head.     She  rolled  on 
the  ground,  sometimes  on  her  back,  sometimes  ©n  her 
belly,  and  bit  everything  within  reach.    A  young  gibbon 
{Hylohates syndactylus)  in  a  passion  has  been  described^® 
as  behaving  in  almost  exactly  the  same  manner. 

The  lips  of  young  orangs  and  chimpanzees  are  pro- 
truded, sometimes  to  a  wonderful  degree,  under  various 
circumstances.  They  act  thus,  not  only  when  slightly 
angered,  sulky,  or  disappointed,  but  when  alarmed  at 

"  Brehm  remarks  (' Thierleben,'  s.  68)  that  the  eye- 
brows of  the  Inuus  ccaiidatus  are  frequently  moved  up 
and  down  when  the  animal  is  angered. 

"  G.  Bennett.  '  Wanderings  in  New  South  Wales,  «S;c. 
vol.  ii.  1834,  p.  153. 


Chap.  V. 


MONKEYS. 


139 


FiQ.  18. — Chimpanzee  disappointed  and  eulky.    Drawn  from  life  by  Mr.  Wood. 


140  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

anything — in  one  instance,  at  the  sight  of  a  turtle/^ — 
and  likewise  when  pleased.  But  neither  the  degree  of 
protrusion  nor  the  shape  of  the  mouth  is  exactly  the 
same,  as  I  believe,  in  all  cases;  and  the  sounds  which 
are  then  uttered  are  different.  The  accompanying 
drawing  represents  a  chimpanzee  made  sulky  by  an 
orange  having  been  offered  him,  and  then  taken  away. 
A  similar  protrusion  or  pouting  of  the  lips,  though 
to  a  much  slighter  degree,  may  be  seen  in  sulky  chil- 
dren. 

Many  years  ago,  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  I  placed 
a  looking-glass  on  the  floor  before  two  young  orangs, 
who,  as  far  as  it  was  known,  had  never  before  seen  one. 
At  first  they  gazed  at  their  own  images  with  the  most 
steady  surprise,  and  often  changed  their  point  of  view. 
They  then  approached  close  and  protruded  their  lips 
towards  the  image,  as  if  to  kiss  it,  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  as  they  had  previously  done  towards  each  other, 
when  first  placed,  a  few  days  before,  in  the  same  room. 
They  next  made  all  sorts  of  grimaces,  and  put  them- 
selves in  various  attitudes  before  the  mirror;  they 
pressed  and  rubbed  the  surface;  they  placed  their  hands 
at  different  distances  behind  it;  looked  behind  it;  and 
finally  seemed  almost  frightened,  started  a  little,  became 
cross,  and  refused  to  look  any  longer. 

When  we  try  to  perform  some  little  action  which  is 
difficult  and  requires  precision,  for  instance,  to  thread 
a  needle,  we  generally  close  our  lips  firmly,  for  the  sake, 
I  presume,  of  not  disturbing  our  movements  by  breath- 
ing; and  I  noticed  the  same  action  in  a  young  Orang. 
The  poor  Httle  creature  was  sick,  and  was  amusing  itself 
by  trying  to  kill  the  flies  on  the  window-panes  with  its 


"  W.  L.  Martin,  Nat.   Hist,   of  Mamm.   Animals,   1841, 
p.  405. 


Chap.  V.  MONKEYS.  141 

knuckles;  this  was  difficult  as  the  flies  buzzed  about, 
and  at  each  attempt  the  lips  were  firmly  compressed,  and 
at  the  same  time  slightly  protruded. 

Although  the  countenances,  and  more  especially  the 
gestures,  of  orangs  and  chimpanzees  are  in  some  re- 
spects highly  expressive,  I  doubt  whether  on  the  whole 
they  are  so  expressive  as  those  of  some  other  kinds  of 
monkeys.  This  may  be  attributed  in  part  to  their  ears 
being  immovable,  and  in  part  to  the  nakedness  of  their 
eyebrows,  of  which  the  movements  are  thus  rendered  less 
conspicuous.  When,  however,  they  raise  their  eyebrows 
their  foreheads  become,  as  with  us,  transversely  wrinkled. 
In  comparison  with  man,  their  faces  are  inexpressive, 
chiefly  owing  to  their  not  frowning  under  any  emotion 
of  the  mind — that  is,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ob- 
serve, and  I  carefully  attended  to  this  point.  Frown- 
ing, which  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  expres- 
sions in  man,  is  due  to  the  contraction  of  the  corrugators 
by  which  the  eyebrows  are  lowered  and  brought  together, 
so  that  vertical  furrows  are  formed  on  the  forehead. 
Both  the  orang  and  chimpanzee  are  said  ^^  to  possess 
this  muscle,  but  it  seems  rarely  brought  into  action,  at 
least  in  a  conspicuous  manner.  I  made  my  hands  into 
a  sort  of  cage,  and  placing  some  tempting  fruit  within, 
allowed  both  a  young  orang  and  chimpanzee  to  try  their 
utmost  to  get  it  out;  but  although  they  grew  rather 
cross,  they  showed  not  a  trace  of  a  frown.  Nor  was  there 
any  frown  when  they  were  enraged.  Twice  I  took  two 
chimpanzees  from  their  rather  dark  room  suddenly  into 
bright  sunshine,  which  would  certainly  have  caused  us 
to  frown;  they  blinked  and  winked  their  eyes,  but  only 

'*  Prof.  Owen  on  the  Orang,  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1830,  p. 
28.  On  the  Chimpanzee,  see  Prof.  Macalister,  in  Annals 
and  Mag-,  of  Nat.  Hist.  vol.  vii.  1871,  p.  342,  who  states 
that  the  corrugator  supercilii  is  inseparable  from  the 
orbicularis  palpebrarum. 


142  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

once  did  I  see  a  very  slight  frown.  On  another  occasion, 
I  tickled  the  nose  of  a  chimpanzee  with  a  straw,  and  as 
it  crumpled  up  its  face,  slight  vertical  furrows  appeared 
between  the  eyebrows.  I  have  never  seen  a  frown  on  the 
forehead  of  the  orang. 

The  gorilla,  when  enraged,  is  described  as  erecting 
its  crest  of  hair,  throwing  down  its  under  lip,  dilating 
its  nostrils,  and  uttering  terrific  yells.  Messrs.  Savage 
and  Wyman  ^^  state  that  the  scalp  can  be  freely  moved 
backwards  and  forwards,  and  that  when  the  animal  is 
excited  it  is  strongly  contracted;  but  I  presume  that 
they  mean  by  this  latter  expression  that  the  scalp  is  low- 
ered; for  they  likewise  speak  of  the  young  cliimpanzee, 
when  crying  out,  "  as  having  the  eyebrows  strongly  con- 
tracted." The  great  power  of  movement  in  the  scalp 
of  the  gorilla,  of  many  baboons  and  other  monkeys,  de- 
serves notice  in  relation  to  the  power  possessed  by  some 
few  men,  either  through  reversion  or  persistence,  of  vol- 
untarily moving  their  scalps.^*^ 

Astonishment,  Terror. — A  living  fresh-water  turtle 
was  placed  at  my  request  in  the  same  compartment  in 
the  Zoological  Gardens  with  many  monkeys;  and  they 
showed  unbounded  astonishment,  as  well  as  some  fear. 
This  was  displayed  by  their  remaining  motionless,  star- 
ing intently  with  widely  opened  eyes,  their  eyebrows 
being  often  moved  up  and  down.  Their  faces  seemed 
somewhat  lengthened.  They  occasionally  raised  them- 
selves on  their  hind-legs  to  get  a  better  view.  They  often 
retreated  a  few  feet,  and  then  turning  their  heads  over 
one  shoulder,  again  stared  intently.  It  was  curious  to 
observe  how  much  less  afraid  they  were  of  the  turtle 
than  of  a  living  snake  which  I  had  formerly  placed  in 

"  Boston  Journal  of  Nat.  Hist.  1845-47,  vol.  v.  p.  423. 
On  the  Chimpanzee,  ibid.  1843-44,  vol.  iv.  p.  365. 

^  See  on  this  subject,  '  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  i.  p.  20. 


Chap.  V.  MONKEYS.  143 

their  compartment;  ^^  for  in  the  course  of  a  few  min- 
utes some  of  the  monkeys  ventured  to  approach  and 
touch  the  turtle.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  larger 
baboons  were  greatly  terrified,  and  grinned  as  if  on  the 
point  of  screaming  out.  When  I  showed  a  little  dressed- 
up  doll  to  the  Cynopithecus  niger^  it  stood  motionless, 
stared  intently  with  widely  opened  eyes,  and  advanced 
its  ears  a  little  forwards.  But  when  the  turtle  was 
placed  in  its  compartment,  this  monkey  also  moved 
its  lips  in  an  odd,  rapid,  jabbering  manner,  which  the 
keeper  declared  was  meant  to  conciliate  or  please  the 
turtle. 

I  was  never  able  clearly  to  perceive  that  the  eye- 
brows of  astonished  monkeys  were  kept  permanently 
raised,  though  they  were  frequently  moved  up  and  down. 
Attention,  which  precedes  astonishment,  is  expressed  by 
man  by  a  slight  raising  of  the  eyebrows;  and  Dr.  Du- 
chenne  informs  me  that  when  he  gave  to  the  monkey 
formerly  mentioned  some  quite  new  article  of  food,  it 
elevated  its  eyebrows  a  little,  thus  assuming  an  appear- 
ance of  close  attention.  It  then  took  the  food  in  its 
fingers,  and,  with  lowered  or  rectilinear  eyebrows, 
scratched,  smelt,  and  examined  it, — an  expression  of  re- 
flection being  thus  exhibited.  Sometimes  it  would 
throw  back  its  head  a  little,  and  again  with  sud- 
denly raised  eyebrows  re-examine  and  finally  taste  the 
food. 

In  no  case  did  any  monkey  keep  its  mouth  open  when 
it  was  astonished.  Mr.  Sutton  observed  for  me  a  young 
orang  and  chimpanzee  during  a  considerable  length  of 
time;  and  however  much  they  were  astonished,  or  whilst 
listening  intently  to  some  strange  sound,  they  did  not 
keep  their  mouths  open.    This  fact  is  surprising,  as  with 

"  *  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  i.  p.  43. 


144  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS:  Chap.  V. 

mankind  hardly  any  expression  is  more  general  than  a 
widely  open  mouth  under  the  sense  of  astonishment. 
As  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  observe,  monkeys  breathe 
more  freely  through  their  nostrils  than  men  do;  and 
this  may  account  for  their  not  opening  their  mouths 
when  they  are  astonished;  for,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future 
chapter,  man  apparently  acts  in  this  manner  when 
startled,  at  first  for  the  sake  of  quickly  drawing  a  full 
inspiration,  and  afterwards  for  the  sake  of  breathing 
as  quietly  as  possible. 

Terror  is  expressed  by  many  kinds  of  monkeys  by 
the  utterance  of  shrill  screams;  the  lips  being  drawn 
back,  so  that  the  teeth  are  exposed.  The  hair  becomes 
erect,  especially  when  some  anger  is  likewise  felt.  Mr. 
Sutton  has  distinctly  seen  the  face  of  the  Macacus  rhesus 
grow  pale  from  fear.  Monkeys  also  tremble  from  fear; 
and  sometimes  they  void  their  excretions.  I  have  seen 
one  which,  when  caught,  almost  fainted  from  an  excess 
of  terror. 

Sufficient  facts  have  now  been  given  with  respect  to 
the  expressions  of  various  animals.  It  is  impossible  to 
agree  with  Sir  C.  Bell  when  he  says  ^^  that  "  the  faces 
of  animals  seem  chiefly  capable  of  expressing  rage  and 
fear;  "  and  again,  when  he  says  that  all  their  expressions 
"  may  be  referred,  more  or  less  plainly,  to  their  acts  of 
volition  or  necessary  instincts."  He  who  will  look  at  a 
dog  preparing  to  attack  another  dog  or  a  man,  and  at 
the  same  animal  when  caressing  his  master,  or  will  watch 
the  countenance  of  a  monkey  when  insulted,  and  when 
fondled  by  his  keeper,  will  be  forced  to  admit  that  the 
movements  of  their  features  and  their  gestures  are  almost 
as  expressive  as  those  of  man.    Although  no  explanation 

«  *  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  3rd  edit.  1844,  pp.  138,  121. 


Chap.  V.  MONKEYS.  145 

can  be  given  of  some  of  the  expressions  in  the  lower  ani- 
mals, the  greater  number  are  explicable  in  accordance 
with  the  three  principles  given  at  the  commencement  of 
the  first  chapter. 


146  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING :         Chap.  VI. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Special  Expeessioxs  of  Max:  Suffeeixg  and 
Weepixg. 

The  screaming-  and  weeping  of  infants — Forms  of  features 
— Age  at  which  weeping  commences — The  effects  of 
habitual  restraint  on  weeping — Sobbing- — Cause  of  the 
contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  during 
screaming — Cause  of  the  secretion  of  tears. 

In  this  and  the  following  chapters  the  expressions 
exhibited  by  Man  under  various  states  of  the  mind  will 
be  described  and  explained,  as  far  as  lies  in  my  power. 
My  observations  will  be  arranged  according  to  the  order 
which  I  have  found  the  most  convenient;  and  this  will 
generally  lead  to  opposite  emotions  and  sensations  suc- 
ceeding each  other. 

Suffering  of  the  body  and  mind:  weeping. — I  have 
already  described  in  sufficient  detail,  in  the  third  chap- 
ter, the  signs  of  extreme  pain,  as  shown  by  screams  or 
groans,  with  the  writhing  of  the  whole  body  and  the 
teeth  clenched  or  ground  together.  These  signs  are 
often  accompanied  or  followed  by  profuse  sweating,  pal- 
lor, trembling,  utter  prostration,  or  faintness.  No  suf- 
fering is  greater  than  that  from  extreme  fear  or  horror, 
but  here  a  distinct  emotion  comes  into  play,  and  will  be 
elsewhere  considered.  Prolonged  suffering,  especially  of 
the  mind,  passes  into  low  spirits,  grief,  dejection,  and 
despair,  and  these  states  will  be  the  subject  of  the  follow- 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  147 

ing  chapter.  Here  I  shall  almost  confine  myself  to  weep- 
ing or  crying,  more  especially  in  children. 

Infants,  when  suffering  even  slight  pain,  moderate 
hunger,  or  discomfort,  utter  violent  and  prolonged 
screams.  Whilst  thus  screaming  their  eyes  are  firmly 
closed,  so  that  the  skin  round  them  is  wrinkled,  and  the 
forehead  contracted  into  a  frown.  The  mouth  is  widely 
opened  with  the  lips  retracted  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
which  causes  it  to  assume  a  squarish  form;  the  gums 
or  teeth  being  more  or  less  exposed.  The  breath  is  in- 
haled almost  spasmodically.  It  is  easy  to  observe  in- 
fants whilst  screaming;  but  I  have  found  photographs 
made  by  the  instantaneous  process  the  best  means  for 
observation,  as  allowing  more  deliberation.  I  have  col- 
lected twelve,  most  of  them  made  purposely  for  me;  and 
they  all  exhibit  the  same  general  characteristics.  I  have, 
therefore,  had  six  of  them  ^  (Plate  I.)  reproduced  by  the 
heliotype  process. 

The  firm  closing  of  the  eyelids  and  consequent  com- 
pression of  the  eyeball, — and  this  is  a  most  important 
element  in  various  expressions, — serves  to  protect  the 
eyes  from  becoming  too  much  gorged  with  blood,  as  will 
presently  be  explained  in  detail.  With  respect  to  the 
order  in  which  the  several  muscles  contract  in  firmly 
compressing  the  eyes,  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Langstaff, 
of  Southampton,  for  some  observations,  which  I  have 
since  repeated.  The  best  plan  for  observing  the  order 
is  to  make  a  person  first  raise  his  eyebrows,  and  this  pro- 
duces transverse  wrinkles  across  the  forehead;  and  then 
very  gradually  to  contract  all  the  muscles  round  the  eyes 


^  The  best  photographs  in  my  collection  are  by  Mr. 
Rejlander,  of  Victoria  Street,  London,  and  by  Herr  Kinder- 
mann,  of  Hamburg-.  Fig-s.  1,  3,  4,  and  6  are  by  the  former; 
and  figs.  2  and  5,  by  the  latter  gentleman.  Fig.  6  is  given 
to  show  moderate  crying  in  an  older  child. 


148  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VL 

with  as  much  force  as  possible.  The  reader  who  is  un- 
acquainted with  the  anatomy  of  the  face,  ought  to  refer 
to  p.  24,  and  look  at  the  woodcuts  1  to  3.  The  corru- 
gators  of  the  brow  (corrugator  supercilii)  seem  to  be  the 
first  muscles  to  contract;  and  these  draw  the  eyebrows 
downwards  and  inwards  towards  the  base  of  the  nose, 
causing  vertical  furrows,  that  is  a  frown,  to  appear  be- 
tween the  eyebrows;  at  the  same  time  they  cause  the 
disappearance  of  the  transverse  wrinkles  across  the  fore- 
head. The  orbicular  muscles  contract  almost  simultane- 
ously with  the  corrugators,  and  produce  wrinkles  all 
round  the  eyes;  they  appear,  however,  to  be  enabled  to 
contract  with  greater  force,  as  soon  as  the  contraction  of 
the  corrugators  has  given  them  some  support.  Lastly, 
the  pyramidal  muscles  of  the  nose  contract;  and  these 
draw  the  eyebrows  and  the  skin  of  the  forehead  still 
lower  down,  producing  short  transverse  wrinkles  across 
the  base  of  the  nose.^  For  the  sake  of  brevity  these  mus- 
cles will  generally  be  spoken  of  as  the  orbiculars,  or  as 
those  surrounding  the  eyes. 

When  these  muscles  are  strongly  contracted,  those 
running  to  the  upper  lip  ^  likewise  contract  and  raise 
the  upper  lip.  This  might  have  been  expected  from 
the  manner  in  which  at  least  one  of  them,  the  malarisj 


»  Henle  (*  Handbuch  d.  Syst.  Anat.  1858,  B.  i.  s.  139) 
agrees  ^vith  Duchenne  that  this  is  the  effect  of  the  con- 
traction of  the  pyramidalis  nasi. 

'  These  consist  of  the  levator  lahii  superioris  alcpque  n^isi, 
the  levator  labii  proprius,  the  malaris,  and  the  zygomaticufi 
minor,  or  little  zygomatic.  This  latter  muscle  runs  parallel 
to  and  above  the  great  zygomatic,  and  is  attached  to  the 
outer  part  of  the  upper  lip.  It  is  represented  in  fig.  2 
(I.  p.  24),  but  not  in  figs.  1  and  3.  Dr.  Duchenne  first 
showed  ('  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Al- 
bum, 1862,  p.  39)  the  importance  of  the  contraction  of 
this  muscle  in  the  shape  assumed  by  the  features  in  cry- 
ing. Henle  considers  the  above-named  muscles  (except- 
ing the  malaris)  as  subdivisions  of  the  quadratus  labii 
superioris. 


WEEPING.  14J 

is  connected  with  the  orhiculars.  Any  one  who  will 
gradually  contract  the  muscles  round  his  eyes,  will  feel, 
as  he  increases  the  force,  that  his  upper  lip  and  the 
wings  of  his  nose  (which  are  partly  acted  on  by  one  of 
the  same  muscles)  are  almost  always  a  little  drawn  up. 
If  he  keeps  his  mouth  firmly  shut  whilst  contracting 
the  muscles  round  the  eyes,  and  then  suddenly  relaxes 
his  lips,  he  will  feel  that  the  pressure  on  his  eyes  im- 
mediately increases.  So  again  when  a  person  on  a  bright, 
glaring  day  wishes  to  look  at  a  distant  object,  but  is 
compelled  partially  to  close  his  eyelids,  the  upper  lip 
may  almost  always  be  observed  to  be  somewhat  raised. 
The  mouths  of  some  very  short-sighted  persons,  who 
are  forced  habitually  to  reduce  the  aperture  of  their 
eyes,  wear  from  this  same  reason  a  grinning  expression. 
The  raising  of  the  upper  lip  draws  upwards  the  flesh 
of  the  upper  parts  of  the  cheeks,  and  produces  a  strongly 
marked  fold  on  each  cheek,— the  naso-labial  fold,— 
which  runs  from  near  the  wings  of  the  nostrils  to  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  and  below  them.  This  fold  or  fur- 
row may  be  seen  in  all  the  photographs,  and  is  very 
characteristic  of  the  expression  of  a  crying  child;  though 
a  nearly  similar  fold  is  produced  in  the  act  of  laughing 
or  smiling."* 


*  Although  Dr.  Duchenne  has  so  carefully  studied  the 
contraction  of  the  different  muscles  during-  the  act  of 
crying,  and  the  furrows  on  the  face  thus  produced,  there 
seems  to  be  something  incomplete  in  his  account;  but 
what  this  is  I  cannot  say.  He  has  given  a  figure  (Album, 
fig.  48)  in  which  one  half  of  the  face  is  made,  by  gal- 
vanizing the  proper  muscles,  to  smile;  whilst  the  other 
half  is  similarly  made  to  begin  crying.  Almost  all  those 
(viz.  nineteen  out  of  twenty-one  persons)  to  whom  I 
showed  the  smiling  half  of  the  face  instantly  recognized 
the  expression;  but,  with  respect  to  the  other  half,  only 
six  persons  out  of  twenty-one  recognized  it, — that  is,  if 
we  accept  such  terms  as  "  grief,"  "  misery,"  "  annoy- 
ance," as  correct; — whereas,  fifteen  persons  were  ludi- 
crously   mistaken;     some    of    them    saying    the    face    ex- 


150  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VL 

As  the  upper  lip  is  much  drawn  up  during  the  act  of 
screaming,  in  the  manner  just  explained,  the  depressor 
muscles  of  the  angles  of  the  mouth  (see  K  in  woodcuts 
1  and  2)  are  strongly  contracted  in  order  to  keep  the 
mouth  widely  open,  so  that  a  full  volume  of  sound  may 
be  poured  forth.  The  action  of  these  opposed  muscles, 
above  and  below,  tends  to  give  to  the  mouth  an  oblong, 
almost  squarish  outline,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  accom- 
panjdng  photographs.  An  excellent  observer,^  in  de- 
scribing a  baby  crying  whilst  being  fed,  says,  "  it  made 
its  mouth  like  a  square,  and  let  the  porridge  run  out  at 
all  four  corners.^'  I  believe,  but  we  shall  return  to  this 
point  in  a  future  chapter,  that  the  depressor  muscles  of 
the  angles  of  the  mouth  are  less  under  the  separate  con- 
trol of  the  will  than  the  adjoining  muscles;  so  that  if  a 
young  child  is  only  doubtfully  inclined  to  cry,  this  mus- 
cle is  generally  the  first  to  contract,  and  is  the  last  to 
cease  contracting.  When  older  children  commence  cry- 
ing, the  muscles  which  run  to  the  upper  lip  are  often  the 
first  to  contract;  and  this  may  perhaps  be  due  to  older 
children  not  having  so  strong  a  tendency  to  scream 
loudly,  and  consequently  to  keep  their  mouths  widely 

pressed  "  fun,"  "  satisfaction,"  "  cunning-,"  "  disgust,"  &c. 
We  may  infer  from  this  that  there  is  something-  wrong  in 
the  expression.  Some  of  the  fifteen  persons  may,  how- 
ever, have  been  partly  misled  by  not  expecting  to  see 
an  old  man  crying,  and  by  tears  not  being  secreted.  With 
respect  to  another  figure  by  Dr.  Duchenne  (fig.  49),  in 
which  the  muscles  of  half  the  face  are  galvanized  in 
order  to  represent  a  man  beginning  to  cry,  with  the  eje- 
brow^  on  the  same  side  rendered  oblique,  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  misery,  the  expression  was  recognized  by  a 
greater  proportional  number  of  persons.  Out  of  twenty- 
three  persons,  fourteen  answered  correctlj^  "  sorrow," 
"  distress,"  "  grief,"  "  just  going  to  cry,"  "  endurance 
of  pain,"  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  nine  persons  either 
could  form  no  opinion  or  were  entirely  wrong,  answer- 
ing, "  cunning  leer,"  "  jocund,"  "  looking  at  an  intense 
light,"  "  looking  at  a  distant  object,"  &c. 

»  Mrs.  Gaskell,  '  Mary  Barton,'  new  edit.  p.  84. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  151 

open;  so  that  the  above-named  depressor  muscles  are  not 
brought  into  such  strong  action. 

With  one  of  my  own  infants,  from  his  eighth  day  and 
for  some  time  afterwards,  I  often  observed  that  the  first 
sign  of  a  screaming-fit,  when  it  could  be  observed  com- 
ing on  gradually,  was  a  little  frown,  owing  to  the  con- 
traction of  the  corrugators  of  the  brows;  the  capillaries 
of  the  naked  head  and  face  becoming  at  the  same  time 
reddened  with  blood.  As  soon  as  the  screaming-fit  ac- 
tually began,  all  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  were  strongly 
contracted,  and  the  mouth  widely  opened  in  the  manner 
above  described;  so  that  at  this  early  period  the  features 
assumed  the  same  form  as  at  a  more  advanced  age. 

Dr.  Piderit  ^  lays  great  stress  on  the  contraction  of 
certain  muscles  which  draw  down  the  nose  and  narrow 
the  nostrils,  as  eminently  characteristic  of  a  crying  ex- 
pression. The  depressores  anguli  oris,  as  we  have  just 
seen,  are  usually  contracted  at  the  same  time,  and  they 
indirectly  tend,  according  to  Dr.  Duchenne,  to  act  in 
this  same  manner  on  the  nose.  With  children  having 
bad  colds  a  similar  pinched  appearance  of  the  nose  may 
be  noticed,  which  is  at  least  partly  due,  as  remarked  to 
me  by  Dr.  Langstaff,  to  their  constant  snuffling,  and  the 
consequent  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on  the  two  sides. 
The  purpose  of  this  contraction  of  the  nostrils  by  chil- 
dren having  bad  colds,  or  whilst  crying,  seems  to  be  to 
check  the  downward  flow  of  the  mucus  and  tears,  and 
to  prevent  these  fluids  spreading  over  the  upper  lip. 

After  a  prolonged  and  severe  screaming-fit,  the  scalp, 
face,  and  eyes  are  reddened,  owing  to  the  return  of  the 
blood  from  the  head  having  been  impeded  by  the  violent 
expiratory  efforts;  but   the  redness  of  the  stimulated 


'  *  Mimik  und  Physiog-nomik,'  1867,  s,   102.     Duchenne, 
Mecanisme  de  la  Phys.  Humaine,  Album,  p.  34. 


152  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VI. 

eyes  is  chiefly  due  to  the  copious  effusion  of  tears.  The 
various  muscles  of  the  face  which  have  been  strongly 
contracted,  still  twitch  a  little,  and  the  upper  lip  is  still 
slightly  drawn  up  or  everted,^  with  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  still  a  little  drawn  downwards.  I  have  myself 
felt,  and  have  observed  in  other  grown-up  persons,  that 
when  tears  are  restrained  with  difficulty,  as  in  reading 
a  pathetic  story,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  the 
various  muscles,  which  with  young  children  are  brought 
into  strong  action  during  their  screaming-fits,  from 
slightly  twitching  or  trembling. 

Infants  whilst  young  do  not  shed  tears  or  weep,  as  is 
well  known  to  nurses  and  medical  men.  This  circum- 
stance is  not  exclusively  due  to  the  lacrymal  glands 
being  as  yet  incapable  of  secreting  tears.  I  first  noticed 
this  fact  from  having  accidentally  brushed  with  the  cuff 
of  my  coat  the  open  eye  of  one  of  my  infants,  when 
seventy-seven  days  old,  causing  this  eye  to  water  freely; 
and  though  the  child  screamed  violently,  the  other  eye 
remained  dry,  or  was  only  slightly  suffused  with  tears. 
A  similar  slight  effusion  occurred  ten  days  previously 
in  both  eyes  during  a  screaming-fit.  The  tears  did  not 
run  over  the  eyelids  and  roll  down  the  cheeks  of  this 
child,  whilst  screaming  badly,  when  122  days  old.  This 
first  happened  17  days  later,  at  the  age  of  139  days.  A 
few  other  children  have  been  observed  for  me,  and  the 
period  of  free  weeping  appears  to  be  very  variable.  In 
one  case,  the  eyes  became  slightly  suffused  at  the  age 
of  only  20  days;  in  another,  at  62  days.  With  two  other 
children,  the  tears  did  not  run  down  the  face  at  the  ages 
of  84  and  110  days;  but  in  a  third  child  they  did  run 
down  at  the  age  of  104  days.  In  one  instance,  as  I  was 
positively  assured,  tears  ran  down  at  the  unusually  early 


'  Dr.  Duchenne  makes  this  remark,  ibid.  p.  39. 


Chap.  VL  WEEPING.  153 

age  of  42  days.  It  would  appear  as  if  the  lacrymal  glands 
required  some  practice  in  the  individual  before  they  are 
easily  excited  into  action,  in  somewhat  the  same  manner 
as  various  inherited  consensual  movements  and  tastes 
require  some  exercise  before  they  are  fixed  and  perfected. 
This  is  all  the  more  likely  with  a  habit  like  weeping, 
whi^h  must  have  been  acquired  since  the  period  when 
man  branched  off  from  the  common  progenitor  of  the 
genus  Homo  and  of  the  non-weeping  anthropomorphous 
apes. 

The  fact  of  tears  not  being  shed  at  a  very  early  age 
from  pain  or  any  mental  emotion  is  remarkable,  as,  later 
in  life,  no  expression  is  more  general  or  more  strongly 
marked  than  weeping.  When  the  habit  has  once  been 
acquired  by  an  infant,  it  expresses  in  the  clearest  man- 
ner suffering  of  all  kinds,  both  bodily  pain  and  mental 
distress,  even  though  accompanied  by  other  emotions, 
such  as  fear  or  rage.  The  character  of  the  crying,  how- 
ever, changes  at  a  very  early  age,  as  I  noticed  in  my  own 
infants, — the  passionate  cry  differing  from  that  of  grief. 
A  lady  informs  me  that  her  child,  nine  months  old,  when 
in  a  passion  screams  loudly,  but  does  not  weep;  tears, 
however,  are  shed  when  she  is  punished  by  her  chair 
being  turned  with  its  back  to  the  table.  This  difference 
may  perhaps  be  attributed  to  weeping  being  restrained, 
as  we  shall  immediately  see,  at  a  more  advanced  age, 
under  most  circumstances  excepting  grief;  and  to  the 
influence  of  such  restraint  being  transmitted  to  an  earlier 
period  of  life,  than  that  at  which  it  was  first  practised. 

With  adults,  especially  of  the  male  sex,  weeping  soon 
ceases  to  be  caused  by,  or  to  express,  bodily  pain.  This 
may  be  accounted  for  by  its  being  thought  weak  and 
unmanly  by  men,  both  of  civilized  and  barbarous  races, 
to  exhibit  bodily  pain  by  any  outward  sign.  With  this 
exception,  savages  weep  copiously  from  very  slight 
11 


154  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VL 

causes,  of  which  fact  Sir  J.  Lubbock »  has  collected  in- 
stances. A  New  Zealand  chief  "  cried  like  a  child  be- 
cause the  sailors  spoilt  his  favourite  cloak  by  powdering 
it  with  flour."  I  saw  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  a  native  who 
had  lately  lost  a  brother,  and  who  alternately  cried  with 
hysterical  violence,  and  laughed  heartily  at  anything 
which  amused  him.  With  the  civilized  nations  of  Eu- 
rope there  is  also  much  difference  in  the  frequency  of 
weeping.  Englishmen  rarely  cry,  except  under  the  pres- 
sure of  the  acutest  grief;  whereas  in  some  parts  of  the 
Continent  the  men  shed  tears  much  more  readily  and 
freely. 

The  insane  notoriously  give  way  to  all  their  emo- 
tions with  little  or  no  restraint;  and  I  am  informed  by 
Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne,  that  nothing  is  more  charac- 
teristic of  simple  melanchoha,  even  in  the  male  sex,  than 
a  tendency  to  weep  on  the  slightest  occasions,  or  from  no 
cause.  They  also  weep  disproportionately  on  the  occur- 
rence of  any  real  cause  of  grief.  The  length  of  time  dur- 
ing which  some  patients  weep  is  astonishing,  as  well  as 
the  amount  of  tears  which  they  shed.  One  melancholic 
girl  wept  for  a  whole  day,  and  afterwards  confessed  to 
Dr.  Browne,  that  it  was  because  she  remembered  that 
she  had  once  shaved  off  her  eyebrows  to  promote  their 
growth.  Many  patients  in  the  asylum  sit  for  a  long  time 
rocking  themselves  backwards  and  forwards;  "and  if 
spoken  to,  they  stop  their  movements,  purse  up  their 
eyes,  depress  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  and  burst  out 
crpng."  In  some  of  these  cases,  the  being  spoken  to  or 
kindly  greeted  appears  to  suggest  some  fanciful  and  sor- 
rowful notion;  but  in  other  cases  an  effort  of  any  kind 
excites  weeping,  independently  of  any  sorrowful  idea. 
Patients  suffering  from  acute  mania  hkewise  have  parox- 


•  '  The  Origin  of  Civilization,'  1870,  p.  355. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  155 

ysms  of  violent  crying  or  blubbering,  in  the  midst  of 
their  incoherent  ravings.  We  must  not,  however,  lay  too 
much  stress  on  the  copious  shedding  of  tears  by  the  in- 
sane, as  being  due  to  the  lack  of  all  restraint;  for  cer- 
tain brain-diseases,  as  hemiplegia,  brain-wasting,  and 
senile  decay,  have  a  special  tendency  to  induce  weep- 
ing. Weeping  is  common  in  the  insane,  even  after  a 
complete  state  of  fatuity  has  been  reached  and  the  power 
of  speech  lost.  Persons  born  idiotic  likewise  weep;  ® 
but  it  is  said  that  this  is  not  the  case  with  cretins. 

Weeping  seems  to  be  the  primary  and  natural  expres- 
sion, as  we  see  in  children,  of  suffering  of  any  kind, 
whether  bodily  pain  short  of  extreme  agony,  or  mental 
distress.  But  the  foregoing  facts  and  common  experi- 
ence show  us  that  a  frequently  repeated  effort  to  restrain 
weeping,  in  association  with  certain  states  of  the  mind, 
does  much  in  checking  the  habit.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  appears  that  the  power  of  weeping  can  be  increased 
through  habit;  thus  the  Eev.  E.  Taylor,^*^  who  long  re- 
sided in  iSTew  Zealand,  asserts  that  the  women  can  volun- 
tarily shed  tears  in  abundance;  they  meet  for  this  pur- 
pose to  mourn  for  the  dead,  and  they  take  pride  in  cry- 
ing "  in  the  most  affecting  manner." 

A  single  effort  of  repression  brought  to  bear  on  the 
lacrymal  glands  does  little,  and  indeed  seems  often  to 
lead  to  an  opposite  result.  An  old  and  experienced  phy- 
sician told  me  that  he  had  always  found  that  the  only 
means  to  check  the  occasional  bitter  weeping  of  ladies 
who  consulted  him,  and  who  themselves  wished  to  de- 
sist, was  earnestly  to  beg  them  not  to  try,  and  to  assure 


'  See,  for  instance,  Mr.  Marshall's  account  of  an  idiot 
in  Philosoph.  Transact.  1864,  p.  526.  With  respect  to 
cretins,  see  Dr.  Piderit,  '  Mimik  und  Physiog-nomik,'  1867, 
B.  61. 

"  '  New  Zealand  and  its  Inhabitants,'  1855,  p.  175. 


156  EXPRESSION  OP  SUFFERING:        Chap.  VL 

them  that  nothing  would  relieve  them  so  much  as  pro- 
longed and  copious  crying. 

The  screaming  of  infants  consists  of  prolonged  ex- 
pirations, with  short  and  rapid,  almost  spasmodic  in- 
spirations, followed  at  a  somewhat  more  advanced  age 
by  sobbing.  According  to  Gratiolet,^^  the  glottis  is 
chiefly  affected  during  the  act  of  sobbing.  This  sound 
is  heard  "  at  the  moment  when  the  inspiration  conquers 
the  resistance  of  the  glottis,  and  the  air  rushes  into  the 
chest."  But  the  whole  act  of  respiration  is  likewise 
spasmodic  and  violent.  The  shoulders  are  at  the  same 
time  generally  raised,  as  by  this  movement  respiration 
is  rendered  easier.  With  one  of  my  infants,  when  sev- 
enty-seven days  old,  the  inspirations  were  so  rapid  and 
strong  that  they  approached  in  character  to  sobbing; 
when  138  days  old  I  first  noticed  distinct  sobbing,  which 
subsequently  followed  every  bad  crying-fit.  The  res- 
piratory movements  are  partly  voluntary  and  partly  in- 
voluntary, and  I  apprehend  that  sobbing  is  at  least  in 
part  due  to  children  having  some  power  to  command 
after  early  infancy  their  vocal  organs  and  to  stop  their 
screams,  but  from  having  less  power  over  their  respira- 
tory muscles,  these  continue  for  a  time  to  act  in  an  in- 
voluntary or  spasmodic  manner,  after  having  been 
brought  into  violent  action.  Sobbing  seems  to  be  pecul- 
iar to  the  human  species;  for  the  keepers  in  the  Zoologi- 
cal Gardens  assure  me  that  they  have  never  heard  a  sob 
from  any  kind  of  monkey;  though  monkeys  often  scream 
loudly  whilst  being  chased  and  caught,  and  then  pant 
for  a  long  time.  We  thus  see  that  there  is  a  close  anal- 
ogy between  sobbing  and  the  free  shedding  of  tears;  for 
with  children,  sobbing  does  not  commence  during  early 
infancy,  but  afterwards  comes  on  rather  suddenly  and 

"  '  De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  126. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  157 

then  follows  every  bad  crying-fit,  until  the  habit  is 
checked  with  advancing  years. 

On  the  cause  of  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round 
the  eyes  during  screaming. — We  have  seen  that  infants 
and  young  children,  whilst  screaming,  invariably  close 
their  eyes  firmly,  by  the  contraction  of  the  surrounding 
muscles,  so  that  the  skin  becomes  wrinkled  all  around. 
With  older  children,  and  even  with  adults,  whenever 
there  is  violent  and  unrestrained  crying,  a  tendency  to 
the  contraction  of  these  same  muscles  may  be  observed; 
though  this  is  often  checked  in  order  not  to  interfere 
with  vision. 

Sir  C.  Bell  explains  ^^  this  action  in  the  following 
manner: — "  During  every  violent  act  of  expiration, 
whether  in  hearty  laughter,  weeping,  coughing,  or  sneez- 
ing, the  eyeball  is  firmly  compressed  by  the  fibres  of  the 
orbicularis;  and  this  is  a  provision  for  supporting  and 
defending  the  vascular  system  of  the  interior  of  the  eye 
from  a  retrograde  impulse  communicated  to  the  blood 
in  the  veins  at  that  time.  When  we  contract  the  chest 
and  expel  the  air,  there  is  a  retardation  of  the  blood  in 
the  veins  of  the  neck  and  head;  and  in  the  more  power- 
ful acts  of  expulsion,  the  blood  not  only  distends  the 
vessels,  but  is  even  regurgitated  into  the  minute 
branches.  Were  the  eye  not  properly  compressed  at  that 
time,  and  a  resistance  given  to  the  shock,  irreparable 
injury  might  be  inflicted  on  the  delicate  textures  of  the 
interior  of  the  eye."  He  further  adds,  "  If  we  separate 
the  eyelids  of  a  child  to  examine  the  eye,  while  it  cries 
and  struggles  with  passion,  by  taking  off  the  natural 
support  to  the  vascular  system  of  the  eye,  and  means  of 


"  *  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  1844,  p.  106.  See 
also  his  paper  in  the  '  Philosophical  Transactions,'  1822, 
p.  284,  ibid.  1823,  pp.  166  and  289.  Also  '  The  Nervous 
System  of  the  Human  Body,'  3rd  edit.  1836,  p.  175. 


158  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VI. 

guarding  it  against  the  rush  of  blood  then  occurring, 
the  conjunctiva  becomes  suddenly  filled  with  blood,  and 
the  eyelids  everted." 

Not  only  are  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  strongly 
contracted,  as  Sir  C.  Bell  states  and  as  I  have  often  ob- 
served, during  screaming,  loud  laughter,  coughing,  and 
sneezing,  but  during  several  other  analogous  actions. 
A  man  contracts  these  muscles  when  he  violently  blows 
his  nose.  I  asked  one  of  my  boys  to  shout  as  loudly  as 
he  possibly  could,  and  as  soon  as  he  began,  he  firmly 
contracted  his  orbicular  muscles;  I  observed  this  repeat- 
edly, and  on  asking  liim  why  he  had  every  time  so  firmly 
closed  his  eyes,  I  found  that  he  was  quite  unaware  of  the 
fact:  he  had  acted  instinctively  or  unconsciously. 

It  is  not  necessary,  in  order  to  lead  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  these  muscles,  that  air  should  actually  be  expelled 
from  the  chest;  it  suffices  that  the  muscles  of  the  chest 
and  abdomen  should  contract  with  great  force,  yhilst 
by  the  closure  of  the  glottis  no  air  escapes.  In  violent 
vomiting  or  retching  the  diaphragm  is  made  to  descend 
by  the  chest  being  filled  with  air;  it  is  then  held  in  this 
position  by  the  closure  of  the  glottis,  "  as  well  as  by  the 
contraction  of  its  own  fibres."  ^^  The  abdominal  mus- 
cles now  contract  strongly  upon  the  stomach,  its  proper 
muscles  likewise  contracting,  and  the  contents  are  thus 
ejected.  During  each  effort  of  vomiting  "  the  head  be- 
comes greatly  congested,  so  that  the  features  are  red  and 
swollen,  and  the  large  veins  of  the  face  and  temples  visi- 
bly dilated."  At  the  same  time,  as  I  know  from  observa- 
tion, the  muscles  round  the  eyes  are  strongly  contracted. 
This  is  likewise  the  case  when  the  abdominal  muscles 


"  See  Dr.  Brinton's  account  of  the  act  of  vomiting, 
in  Todd's  Cyclop,  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  1859,  vol. 
V.  Supplement,  p.  318. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  159 

act  downwards  with  unusual  force  in  expelling  the  con- 
tents of  the  intestinal  canal. 

The  greatest  exertion  of  the  muscles  of  the  body,  if 
those  of  the  chest  are  not  brought  into  strong  action  in 
expelling  or  compressing  the  air  within  the  lungs,  does 
not  lead  to  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the 
eyes.  I  have  observed  my  sons  using  great  force  in  gym- 
nastic exercises,  as  in  repeatedly  raising  their  suspended 
bodies  by  their  arms  alone,  and  in  lifting  heavy  weights 
from  the  ground,  but  there  was  hardly  any  trace  of  con- 
traction in  the  muscles  round  the  eyes. 

As  the  contraction  of  these  muscles  for  the  protection 
of  the  eyes  during  violent  expiration  is  indirectly,  as 
we  shall  hereafter  see,  a  fundamental  element  in  several 
of  our  most  important  expressions,  I  was  extremely 
anxious  to  ascertain  how  far  Sir  C.  Bell's  view  could  be 
substantiated.  Professor  Bonders,  of  Utrecht,^*  well 
known  as  one  of  the  highest  authorities  in  Europe  on 
vision  and  on  the  structure  of  the  eye,  has  most  kindly 
undertaken  for  me  this  investigation  with  the  aid  of  the 
many  ingenious  mechanisms  of  modern  science,  and  has 
published  the  results.^**  He  shows  that  during  violent 
expiration  the  external,  the  intra-ocular,  and  the  retro- 
ocular  vessels  of  the  eye  are  all  affected  in  two  ways, 
namely  by  the  increased  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the 
arteries,  and  by  the  return  of  the  blood  in  the  veins 

"  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  Bowman  for  having 
introduced  me  to  Prof.  Donders,  and  for  his  aid  in  per- 
suading this  great  physiologist  to  undertake  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  present  subject.  I  am  likewise  much  in- 
debted to  Mr.  Bowman  for  having  given  me,  wdth  the 
utmost  kindness,  information  on  many  points. 

"  This  memoir  first  appeared  in  the  '  Nederlandsch 
Archief  voor  Genees  en  Natuurkunde,'  Deel  5,  1870.  It 
has  been  translated  by  Dr.  W.  D.  Moore,  under  the  title 
of  "  On  the  Action  of  the  Eyelids  in  determination  of 
Blood  from  expiratory  effort,"  in  '  Archives  of  Medicine,' 
edited  by  Dr.  L.  S.  Beale,  1870,  vol.  v.  p.  20. 


leO  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:        Chap.  VL 

being  impeded.  It  is,  therefore,  certain  that  both  the 
arteries  and  the  veins  of  the  eye  are  more  or  less  dis- 
tended during  violent  expiration.  The  evidence  in  de- 
tail may  be  found  in  Professor  Bonders'  valuable  me- 
moir. We  see  the  effects  on  the  veins  of  the  head,  in 
their  prominence,  and  in  the  purple  colour  of  the  face 
of  a  man  who  coughs  violently  from  being  half  choked. 
I  may  mention,  on  the  same  authority,  that  the  whole 
eye  certainly  advances  a  little  during  each  violent  ex- 
piration. This  is  due  to  the  dilatation  of  the  retro-ocular 
vessels,  and  might  have  been  expected  from  the  intimate 
connection  of  the  eye  and  brain;  the  brain  being  known 
to  rise  and  fall  with  each  respiration,  when  a  portion  of 
the  skull  has  been  removed;  and  as  may  be  seen  along 
the  unclosed  sutures  of  infants'  heads.  This  also,  I  pre- 
sume, is  the  reason  that  the  eyes  of  a  strangled  man  ap- 
pear as  if  they  were  starting  from  their  sockets. 

With  respect  to  the  protection  of  the  eye  during  vio- 
lent expiratory  efforts  by  the  pressure  of  the  eyelids.  Pro- 
fessor Bonders  concludes  from  his  various  observations 
that  this  action  certainly  limits  or  entirely  removes  the 
dilatation  of  the  vessels.^®    At  such  times,  he  adds,  we 

"  Prol  Bonders  remarks  (ibid.  p.  28),  that,  "After 
injury  to  the  eye,  after  operations,  and  in  some  forms 
of  internal  inflammation,  we  attach  great  value  to  the 
uniform  support  of  the  closed  eyelids,  and  we  increase 
this  in  many  instances  by  the  application  of  a  bandage. 
In  both  cases  we  carefully  endeavour  to  avoid  great  ex- 
piratory pressure,  the  disadvantage  of  which  is  well  known." 
Mr.  Bowman  informs  me  that  in  the  excessive  photo- 
phobia, accompanying  what  is  called  scrofulous  ophthal- 
mia in  children,  when  the  light  is  so  very  painful  that 
during  weeks  or  months  it  is  constantly  excluded  by  the 
most  forcible  closure  of  the  lids,  he  has  often  been 
struck  on  opening  the  lids  by  the  paleness  of  the  eye, 
— not  an  unnatural  paleness,  but  an  absence  of  the  red- 
ness that  might  have  been  expected  when  the  surface 
is  somewhat  inflamed,  as  is  then  usually  the  case;  and 
this  paleness  he  is  inclined  to  attribute  to  the  forcible 
closure  of  the  eyelids. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  161 

not  unfrequently  see  the  hand  involuntarily  laid  upon 
the  eyelids,  as  if  the  better  to  support  and  defend  the 
eyeball. 

Nevertheless  much  evidence  cannot  at  present  be 
advanced  to  prove  that  the  eye  actually  suffers  injury 
from  the  want  of  support  during  violent  expiration;  but 
there  is  some.  It  is  "  a  fact  that  forcible  expiratory 
efforts  in  violent  coughing  or  vomiting,  and  especially 
in  sneezing,  sometimes  give  rise  to  ruptures  of  the  little 
(external)  vessels  "  of  the  eye.^'  With  respect  to  the 
internal  vessels,  Dr.  Gunning  has  lately  recorded  a  case 
of  exophthalmos  in  consequence  of  whooping-cough, 
which  in  his  opinion  depended  on  the  rupture  of  the 
deeper  vessels;  and  another  analogous  case  has  been  re- 
corded. But  a  mere  sense  of  discomfori;  would  probably 
suffice  to  lead  to  the  associated  habit  of  protecting  the 
eyeball  by  the  contraction  of  the  surrounding  muscles. 
Even  the  expectation  or  chance  of  injury  would  probably 
be  sufficient,  in  the  same  manner  as  an  object  moving  too 
near  the  eye  induces  involuntary  winking  of  the  eyelids. 
We  may,  therefore,  safely  conclude  from  Sir  C.  Bell's 
observations,  and  more  especially  from  the  more  careful 
investigations  by  Professor  Bonders,  that  the  firm  clo- 
sure of  the  eyelids  during  the  screaming  of  children  is  an 
action  full  of  meaning  and  of  real  service. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  contraction  of  the 
orbicular  muscles  leads  to  the  drawing  up  of  the  upper 
lip,  and  consequently,  if  the  mouth  is  kept  widely  open, 
to  the  drawing  down  of  the  corners  by  the  contraction 
of  the  depressor  muscles.  The  formation  of  the  naso- 
labial fold  on  the  cheeks  likewise  follows  from  the  draw- 
ing up  of  the  upper  lip.  Thus  all  the  chief  expressive 
movements  of  the  face  during  crying  apparently  result 

"  Bonders,  ibid.  p.  36. 


162  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VI. 

from  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes.  We 
shall  also  find  that  the  shedding  of  tears  depends  on,  or 
at  least  stands  in  some  connection  with,  the  contraction 
of  these  same  muscles. 

In  some  of  the  foregoing  cases,  especially  in  those  of 
sneezing  and  coughing,  it  is  possible  that  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  orbicular  muscles  may  serve  in  addition  to 
protect  the  eyes  from  too  severe  a  jar  or  vibration.  I 
think  so,  because  dogs  and  cats,  in  crunching  hard  bones, 
always  close  their  eyelids,  and  at  least  sometimes  in 
sneezing;  though  dogs  do  not  do  so  whilst  barking 
loudly.  Mr.  Sutton  carefully  observed  for  me  a  young 
orang  and  chimpanzee,  and  he  found  that  both  always 
closed  their  eyes  in  sneezing  and  coughing,  but  not  whilst 
screaming  violently.  I  gave  a  small  pinch  of  snuff  to  a 
monkey  of  the  American  division,  namely,  a  Cebus,  and 
it  closed  its  eyelids  whilst  sneezing;  but  not  on  a  sub- 
sequent occasion  whilst  uttering  loud  cries. 

Cause  of  the  secretion  of  tears. — It  is  an  important 
fact  which  must  be  considered  in  any  theory  of  the  se- 
cretion of  tears  from  the  mind  being  affected,  that  when- 
ever the  muscles  round  the  eyes  are  strongly  and  invol- 
untarily contracted  in  order  to  compress  the  blood-ves- 
sels and  thus  to  protect  the  eyes,  tears  are  secreted,  often 
in  sufficient  abundance  to  roll  down  the  cheeks.  This 
occurs  under  the  most  opposite  emotions,  and  under  no 
emotion  at  all.  The  sole  exception,  and  this  is  only  a 
partial  one,  to  the  existence  of  a  relation  between  the  in- 
voluntary and  strong  contraction  of  these  muscles  and 
the  secretion  of  tears  is  that  of  young  infants,  who,  whilst 
screaming  violently  with  their  eyelids  firmly  closed,  do 
not  commonly  weep  until  they  have  attained  the  age 
of  from  two  to  three  or  four  months.  Their  eyes,  how- 
ever, become  suffused  with  tears  at  a  much  earlier  age. 
It  would  appear,  as  already  remarked,  that  the  lacrymal 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  163 

glands  do  not,  from  the  want  of  practice  or  some  other 
cause,  come  to  full  functional  activity  at  a  very  early 
period  of  life.  With  children  at  a  somewhat  later  age, 
crying  out  or  wailing  from  any  distress  is  so  regularly 
accompanied  by  the  shedding  of  tears,  that  weeping  and 
crying  are  synon3'mous  terms. ^^ 

Under  the  opposite  emotion  of  great  joy  or  amuse- 
ment, as  long  as  laughter  is  moderate  there  is  hardly 
any  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes,  so  that 
there  is  no  frowning;  hut  when  peals  of  loud  laughter 
are  uttered,  with  rapid  and  violent  spasmodic  expira- 
tions, tears  stream  down  the  face.  1  have  more  than 
once  noticed  the  face  of  a  person,  after  a  paroxysm  of 
violent  laughter,  and  I  could  see  that  the  orbicular  mus- 
cles and  those  running  to  the  upper  lip  were  still  par- 
tially contracted,  which  together  with  the  tear-stained 
cheeks  gave  to  the  upper  half  of  the  face  an  expression 
not  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of  a  child  still  blub- 
bering from  grief.  The  fact  of  tears  streaming  down  the 
face  during  violent  laughter  is  common  to  all  the  races 
of  mankind,  as  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter. 

In  violent  coughing,  especially  when  a  person  is  half- 
choked,  the  face  becomes  purple,  the  veins  distended, 
the  orbicular  muscles  strongly  contracted,  and  tears  run 
down  the  cheeks.  Even  after  a  fit  of  ordinary  cough- 
ing, almost  every  one  has  to  wipe  his  eyes.  In  violent 
vomiting  or  retching,  as  I  have  myself  experienced  and 
seen  in  others,  the  orbicular  muscles  are  strongly  con- 
tracted, and  tears  sometimes  flow  freely  down  the  cheeks. 
It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that  this  may  be  due  to  irri- 
tating matter  being  injected  into  the  nostrils,  and  caus- 


"  Mr.  Hensleig-h  Wedg-wood  (Diet,  of  Eng-lish  Ety- 
molog-y,  1859,  vol.  i.  p.  410)  says,  "  the  verb  to  weep  comes 
from  Ang-lo-Saxon  wopy  the  primary  meaning  of  which 
is  simply  outcry." 


164  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VL 

ing  by  reflex  action  the  secretion  of  tears.  Accordingly 
I  asked  one  of  my  informants,  a  surgeon,  to  attend  to 
the  effects  of  retching  when  nothing  was  thrown  up 
from  the  stomach;  and,  by  an  odd  coincidence,  he  him- 
self suffered  the  next  morning  from  an  attack  of  retch- 
ing, and  three  days  subsequently  observed  a  lady  under 
a  similar  attack;  and  he  is  certain  that  in  neither  case 
an  atom  of  matter  was  ejected  from  the  stomach;  yet  the 
orbicular  muscles  were  strongly  contracted,  and  tears 
freely  secreted.  I  can  also  speak  positively  to  the  ener- 
getic contraction  of  these  same  muscles  round  the  eyes, 
and  to  the  coincident  free  secretion  of  tears,  when  the 
abdominal  muscles  act  with  unusual  force  in  a  downward 
direction  on  the  intestinal  canal. 

Yawning  commences  with  a  deep  inspiration,  fol- 
lowed by  a  long  and  forcible  expiration;  and  at  the 
same  time  almost  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  strongly 
contracted,  including  those  round  the  eyes.  During  this 
act  tears  are  often  secreted,  and  I  have  seen  them  even 
rolling  down  the  cheeks. 

I  have  frequently  observed  that  when  persons  scratch 
some  point  which  itches  intolerably,  they  forcibly  close 
their  eyelids;  but  they  do  not,  as  I  believe,  first  draw  a 
deep  breath  and  then  expel  it  with  force;  and  I  have 
never  noticed  that  the  eyes  then  become  filled  with  tears; 
but  I  am  not  prepared  to  assert  that  this  does  not  occur. 
The  forcible  closure  of  the  eyelids  is,  perhaps,  merely  a 
part  of  that  general  action  by  which  almost  all  the  mus- 
cles of  the  body  are  at  the  same  time  rendered  rigid.  It 
is  quite  different  from  the  gentle  closure  of  the  eyes 
which  often  accompanies,  as  Gratiolet  remarks,^^  the 
smelling  a  delicious  odour,  or  the  tasting  a  delicious 
morsel,  and  which  probably  originates  in  the  desire  to 
shut  out  any  disturbing  impression  through  the  eyes. 

"  '  De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  217. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  165 

Professor  Bonders  writes  to  me  to  the  following  ef- 
fect: ^'  I  have  observed  some  cases  of  a  very  curious 
affection  when,  after  a  slight  rub  (attouchement)^  for  ex- 
ample, from  the  friction  of  a  coat,  which  caused  neither 
a  wound  nor  a  contusion,  spasms  of  the  orbicular  mus- 
cles occurred,  with  a  very  profuse  flow  of  tears,  lasting 
about  one  hour.  Subsequently,  sometimes  after  an  in- 
terval of  several  weeks,  violent  spasms  of  the  same  mus- 
cles re-occurred,  accompanied  by  the  secretion  of  tears, 
together  with  primary  or  secondary  redness  of  the  eye." 
Mr.  Bowman  informs  me  that  he  has  occasionally  ob- 
served closely  analogous  cases,  and  that,  in  some  of  these, 
there  was  no  redness  or  inflammation  of  the  eyes. 

I  was  anxious  to  ascertain  whether  there  existed  in 
any  of  the  lower  animals  a  similar  relation  between  the 
contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscles  during  violent  ex- 
piration and  the  secretion  of  tears;  but  there  are  very 
f  e^  animals  which  contract  these  muscles  in  a  prolonged 
manner,  or  which  shed  tears.  The  Macacus  maurus^ 
which  formerly  wept  so  copiously  in  the  Zoological  Gar- 
dens, would  have  been  a  fine  case  for  observation;  but 
the  two  monkeys  now  there,  and  which  are  believed  to 
belong  to  the  same  species,  do  not  weep.  Nevertheless 
they  were  carefully  observed  by  Mr.  Bartlett  and  myself, 
whilst  screaming  loudly,  and  they  seemed  to  contract 
these  muscles;  but  they  moved  about  their  cages  so  rap- 
idly, that  it  was  difficult  to  observe  with  certainty.  No 
other  monkey,  as  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain, 
contracts  its  orbicular  muscles  whilst  screaming. 

The  Indian  elephant  is  known  sometimes  to  weep. 
Sir  E.  Tennent,  in  describing  these  which  he  saw  cap- 
tured and  bound  in  Ceylon,  says,  some  "  lay  motionless 
on  the  ground,  with  no  other  indication  of  suffering  than 
the  tears  which  suffused  their  eyes  and  flowed  incessant- 
ly."    Speaking  of  another  elephant  he  says,  "  When 


lee  EXPRESSION  OP  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VI. 

overpowered  and  made  fast,  his  grief  was  most  affecting; 
his  violence  sank  to  utter  prostration,  and  he  lay  on  the 
ground,  uttering  choking  cries,  with  tears  trickling 
down  his  cheeks."  ^^  In  the  Zoological  Gardens  the 
keeper  of  the  Indian  elephants  positively  asserts  that  he 
has  several  times  seen  tears  rolling  down  the  face  of  the 
old  female,  when  distressed  by  the  removal  of  the  young 
one.  Hence  I  was  extremely  anxious  to  ascertain,  as  an 
extension  of  the  relation  between  the  contraction  of  the 
orbicular  muscles  and  the  shedding  of  tears  in  man, 
whether  elephants  when  screaming  or  trumpeting  loudly 
contract  these  muscles.  At  Mr.  Bartlett^s  desire  the 
keeper  ordered  the  old  and  the  young  elephant  to  trum- 
pet; and  we  repeatedly  saw  in  both  animals  that,  just 
as  the  trumpeting  began,  the  orbicular  muscles,  espe- 
cially the  lower  ones,  were  distinctly  contracted.     On  a 


^  '  Ceylon,'  3rd  edit.  1859,  vol.  11.  pp.  364,  376.  I  applied 
to  Mr.  Thwaites,  in  Ceylon,  for  further  information  with 
respect  to  the  weeping  of  the  elephant;  and  in  conse- 
quence received  a  letter  from  the  Rev.  Mr  Glenie,  who, 
with  others,  kindly  observed  for  me  a  herd  of  recently 
captured  elephants.  These,  when  irritated,  screamed  vio- 
lently; but  it  is  remarkable  that  they  never  when  thus 
screaming  contracted  the  muscles  round  the  ej'es.  Nor 
did  they  shed  tears;  and  the  native  hunters  asserted 
that  they  had  never  observed  elephants  weeping.  Never- 
theless, it  appears  to  me  impossible  to  doubt  Sir  E.  Ten- 
nent's  distinct  details  about  their  weeping,  supported 
as  thej^  are  by  the  positive  assertion  of  the  keeper  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens.  It  is  certain  that  the  two  elephants 
in  the  Gardens,  when  they  began  to  trumpet  loudly,  in- 
variably contracted  their  orbicular  muscles.  I  can  recon- 
cile these  conflicting  statements  only  by  supposing  that 
the  recently  captured  elephants  in  Ceylon,  from  being 
enraged  or  frightened,  desired  to  observe  their  perse- 
cutors, and  consequently  did  not  contract  their  orbicular 
muscles,  so  that  their  vision  might  not  be  impeded. 
Those  seen  weeping  by  Sir  E.  Tennent  were  prostrate, 
and  had  given  up  the  contest  in  despair.  The  elephants 
w^hich  trumpeted  in  the  Zoological  Gardens  at  the  word 
of  command,  were,  of  course,  neither  alarmed  nor  en- 
raged. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  167 

subsequent  occasion  the  keeper  made  the  old  elephant 
trumpet  much  more  loudly,  and  invariably  both  the 
upper  and  lower  orbicular  muscles  were  strongly  con- 
tracted, and  now  in  an  equal  degree.  It  is  a  singular 
fact  that  the  x^frican  elephant,  which,  however,  is  so 
different  from  the  Indian  species  that  it  is  placed  by 
some  naturalists  in  a  distinct  sub-genus,  when  made  on 
two  occasions  to  trumpet  loudly,  exhibited  no  trace  of 
the  contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscles. 

From  the  several  foregoing  cases  with  respect  to 
Man,  there  can,  I  think,  be  no  doubt  that  the  contrac- 
tion of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes,  during  violent  ex- 
piration or  when  the  expanded  chest  is  forcibly  com- 
pressed, is,  in  some  manner,  intimately  connected  with 
the  secretion  of  tears.  This  holds  good  under  widely 
different  emotions,  and  independently  of  any  emotion. 
It  is  not,  of  course,  meant  that  tears  cannot  be  secreted 
without  the  contraction  of  these  muscles;  for  it  is  notori- 
ous that  they  are  often  freely  shed  with  the  eyelids  not 
closed,  and  with  the  brows  unwrinkled.  The  contrac- 
tion must  be  both  involuntary  and  prolonged,  as  during 
a  choking  fit,  or  energetic,  as  during  a  sneeze.  The  mere 
involuntary  winking  of  the  eyelids,  though  often  re- 
peated, does  not  bring  tears  into  the  eyes.  Nor  does  the 
voluntary  and  prolonged  contraction  of  the  several  sur- 
rounding muscles  suffice.  As  the  lacrymal  glands  of 
children  are  easily  excited,  I  persuaded  my  own  and  sev- 
eral other  children  of  different  ages  to  contract  these 
muscles  repeatedly  with  their  utmost  force,  and  to  con- 
tinue doing  so  as  long  as  they  possibly  could;  but  this 
produced  hardly  any  effect.  There  was  sometimes  a  lit- 
tle moisture  in  the  eyes,  but  not  more  than  apparently 
could  be  accounted  for  by  the  squeezing  out  of  the  al- 
ready secreted  tears  w^ithin  the  glandg. 

The  nature  of  the  relation  between  the  involuntary 


168 


EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VL 


and  energetic  contraction  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes, 
and  the  secretion  of  tears,  cannot  be  positively  ascer- 
tained, but  a  probable  view  may  be  suggested.     The 
primary  function  of  the  secretion  of  tears,  together  with 
some  mucus,  is  to  lubricate  the  surface  of  the  eye;  and 
a  secondary  one,  as  some  believe,  is  to  keep  the  nostrils 
damp,  so  that  the  inhaled  air  may  be  moist,^^  and  like- 
wise to  favour  the  power  of  smelling.    But  another,  and 
at  least  equally  important  function  of  tears,  is  to  wash 
out  particles  of  dust  or  other  minute  objects  which  may 
get  into  the  eyes.     That  this  is  of  great  importance  is 
clear  from  the  cases  in  which  the  cornea  has  been  ren- 
dered opaque  through  inflammation,  caused  by  particles 
of  dust  not  being  removed,  in  consequence  of  the  eye 
and  eyelid  becoming  immovable."     The  secretion  of 
tears  from  the  irritation  of  any  foreign  body  in  the  eye 
is  a  reflex  action; — thai  is,  the  body  irritates  a  peripheral 
nerve  which  sends  an  impression  to   certain   sensory 
nerve-cells;  these  transmit  an  influence  to  other  cells, 
and  these  again  to  the  lacrymal  glands.    The  influence 
transmitted  to  these  glands  causes,  as  there  is  good  rea- 
son to  believe,  the  relaxation  of  the  muscular  coats  of 
the  smaller  arteries;  this  allows  more  blood  to  permeate 
the  glandular  tissue,  and  this  induces  a  free  secretion  of 
tears.     When  the  small  arteries  of  the  face,  including 
those  of  the  retina,  are  relaxed  under  very  different  cir- 
cumstances, namely,  during  an  intense  blush,  the  lacry- 
mal glands  are  sometimes  affected  in  a  like  manner,  for 
the  eyes  become  suffused  with  tears. 

It  is  difficult  to  conjecture  how  many  reflex  actions 
have  originated,  but,  in  relation  to  the  present  case  of 

**  Bergeon,  as  quoted  in  the  *  Journal  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiologv,'  Nov.  1871,  p.  235. 

^  See,  for  instance,  a  case  given  by  Sir  Charles  Bell, 
*  Philosophical  Transactions,'  1823,  p.  177. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  169 

the  affection  of  the  lacrymal  glands  through  irritation 
of  the  surface  of  the  eye,  it  may  be  worth  remarking 
that,  as  soon  as  some  primordial  form  became  semi- 
terrestrial  in  its  habits,  and  was  liable  to  get  particles 
of  dust  into  its  eyes,  if  these  were  not  washed  out  they 
would  cause  much  irritation;  and  on  the  principle  of 
the  radiation  of  nerve-force  to  adjoining  nerve-cells,  the 
lacrymal  glands  would  be  stimulated  to  secretion.  As 
this  would  often  recur,  and  as  nerve-force  readily  passes 
along  accustomed  channels,  a  slight  irritation  would 
ultimately  suffice  to  cause  a  free  secretion  of  tears. 

As  soon  as  by  this,  or  by  some  other  means,  a  reflex 
action  of  this  nature  had  been  established  and  rendered 
easy,  other  stimulants  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  eye 
— such  as  a  cold  wind,  slow  inflammatory  action,  or  a 
blow  on  the  eyelids — would  cause  a  copious  secretion 
of  tears,  as  we  know  to  be  the  case.  The  glands  are  also 
excited  into  action  through  the  irritation  of  adjoining 
parts.  Thus  when  the  nostrils  are  irritated  by  pungent 
vapours,  though  the  eyelids  may  be  kept  firmly  closed, 
tears  are  copiously  secreted;  and  this  likewise  follows 
from  a  blow  on  the  nose,  for  instance  from  a  boxing- 
glove.  A  stinging  switch  on  the  face  produces,  as  I  have 
seen,  the  same  effect.  In  these  latter  cases  the  secretion 
of  tears  is  an  incidental  result,  and  of  no  direct  service. 
As  all  these  parts  of  the  face,  including  the  lacrymal 
glands,  are  supplied  with  branches  of  the  same  nerve, 
namely,  the  fifth,  it  is  in  some  degree  intelligible 
that  the  effects  of  the  excitement  of  any  one  branch 
should  spread  to  the  nerve-cells  or  roots  of  the  other 
branches. 

The  internal  parts  of  the  eye  likewise  act,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  in  a  reflex  manner  on  the  lacrymal 
glands.  The  following  statements  have  been  kindly 
communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Bowman;  but  the  subject 
12 


170  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:        Chap.  VX 

is  a  very  intricate  one,  as  all  the  parts  of  the  eye  are 
so  intimately  related  together,  and  are  so  sensitive  to 
various  stimulants.  A  strong  light  acting  on  the  retina, 
when  in  a  normal  condition,  has  very  little  tendency  to 
cause  lacrymation;  but  with  unhealthy  children  having 
small,  old-standing  ulcers  on  the  cornea,  the  retina  be- 
comes excessively  sensitive  to  light,  and  exposure  even 
to  common  daylight  causes  forcible  and  sustained  closure 
of  the  lids,  and  a  profuse  flow  of  tears.  When  persons 
who  ought  to  begin  the  use  of  convex  glasses  habitually 
strain  the  waning  power  of  accommodation,  an  undue 
secretion  of  tears  very  often  follows,  and  the  retina  is 
liable  to  become  unduly  sensitive  to  light.  In  general, 
morbid  affections  of  the  surface  of  the  eye,  and  of  the 
ciliary  structures  concerned  in  the  accommodative  act, 
are  prone  to  be  accompanied  with  excessive  secretion  of 
tears.  Hardness  of  the  eyeball,  not  rising  to  inflamma- 
tion, but  implying  a  want  of  balance  between  the  fluids 
poured  out  and  again  taken  up  by  the  intra-ocular  ves- 
sels, is  not  usually  attended  with  any  lacrymation.  When 
the  balance  is  on  the  other  side,  and  the  eye  becomes 
too  soft,  there  is  a  greater  tendency  to  lacrymation. 
Finally,  there  are  numerous  morbid  states  and  structural 
alterations  of  the  eyes,  and  even  terrible  inflammations, 
which  may  be  attended  with  little  or  no  secretion  of 
tears. 

It  also  deserves  notice,  as  indirectly  bearing  on  our 
subject,  that  the  eye  and  adjoining  parts  are  subject  to 
an  extraordinary  number  of  reflex  and  associated  move- 
ments, sensations,  and  actions,  besides  those  relating  to 
the  lacrymal  glands.  When  a  bright  light  strikes  the 
retina  of  one  eye  alone,  the  iris  contracts,  but  the  iris 
of  the  other  eye  moves  after  a  measurable  interval  of 
time.  The  iris  likewise  moves  in  accommodation  to  near 
or  distant  vision,  and  when  the  two  eyes  are  made  to 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  171 

converge.^^  Ever}^  one  knows  how  irresistibly  the  eye- 
brows are  drawn  down  under  an  intensely  bright  light. 
The  eyelids  also  involuntarily  wink  when  an  object  is 
moved  near  the  eyes,  or  a  sound  is  suddenly  heard.  The 
well-known  case  of  a  bright  light  causing  some  persons 
to  sneeze  is  even  more  curious;  for  nerve-force  here  radi- 
ates from  certain  nerve-cells  in  connection  with  the 
retina,  to  the  sensory  nerve-cells  of  the  nose,  causing 
it  to  tickle;  and  from  these,  to  the  cells  which  command 
the  various  respiratory  muscles  (the  orbiculars  included) 
which  expel  the  air  in  so  peculiar  a  manner  that  it  rushes 
through  the  nostrils  alone. 

To  return  to  our  point:  why  are  tears  secreted  during 
a  screaming-fit  or  other  violent  expiratory  efforts?  As 
a  slight  blow  on  the  eyelids  causes  a  copious  secretion 
of  tears,  it  is  at  least  possible  that  the  spasmodic  con- 
traction of  the  eyelids,  by  pressing  strongly  on  the  eye- 
ball, should  in  a  similar  manner  cause  some  secretion. 
This  seems  possible,  although  the  voluntary  contraction 
of  the  same  muscles  does  not  produce  any  such  effect. 
We  know  that  a  man  cannot  voluntarily  sneeze  or  cough 
with  nearly  the  same  force  as  he  does  automatically;  and 
so  it  is  with  the  contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscles: 
Sir  C.  Bell  experimented  on  them,  and  found  that  by 
suddenly  and  forcibly  closing  the  eyelids  in  the  dark, 
sparks  of  light  are  seen,  like  those  caused  by  tapping 
the  eyelids  with  the  fingers;  ^^  but  in  sneezing  the  com- 
pression is  both  more  rapid  and  more  forcible,  and  the 
sparks  are  more  brilliant."  That  these  sparks  are  due 
to  the  contraction  of  the  eyelids  is  clear,  because  if  they 
"  are  held  open  during  the  act  of  sneezing,  no  sensation 
of  light  will  be  experienced.'*    In  the  peculiar  cases  re- 

"  See,  on  these  several  points.  Prof.  Bonders  '  On  the 
Anomalies  of  Accommodation  and  Refraction  of  the  Eye,' 
1864,  p.  573. 


172  EXPRESSION  OP  SUFFERING:        Chap.  VI 

ferred  to  by  Professor  Donders  and  Mr.  Bowman,  we 
have  seen  that  some  weeks  after  the  eye  has  been  very 
slightly  injured,  spasmodic  contractions  of  the  eyelids 
ensue,  and  these  are  accompanied  by  a  profuse  flow  of 
tears.  In  the  act  of  yawning,  the  tears  are  apparently 
due  solely  to  the  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes.  Notwithstanding  these  latter  cases,  it 
seems  hardly  credible  that  the  pressure  of  the  eyelids 
on  the  surface  of  the  eye,  although  effected  spasmodi- 
cally and  therefore  with  much  greater  force  than  can 
be  done  voluntarily,  should  be  sufficient  to  cause  by  re- 
flex action  the  secretion  of  tears  in  the  many  cases  in 
which  this  occurs  during  violent  expiratory  efforts. 

Another  cause  may  come  conjointly  into  play.  We 
have  seen  that  the  internal  parts  of  the  eye,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  act  in  a  reflex  manner  on  the  lacrymal 
glands.  We  know  that  during  violent  expiratory  efforts 
the  pressure  of  the  arterial  blood  within  the  vessels  of 
the  eye  is  increased,  and  that  the  return  of  the  venous 
blood  is  impeded.  It  seems,  therefore,  not  improbable 
that  the  distension  of  the  ocular  vessels,  thus  induced, 
might  act  by  reflection  on  the  lacrymal  glands — the  ef- 
fects due  to  the  spasmodic  pressure  of  the  eyelids  on  the 
surface  of  the  eye  being  thus  increased. 

In  considering  how  far  this  view  is  probable,  we 
should  bear  in  mind  that  the  eyes  of  infants  have  been 
acted  on  in  this  double  manner  during  numberless  gen- 
erations, whenever  they  have  screamed;  and  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  nerve-force  readily  passing  along  accustomed 
channels,  even  a  moderate  compression  of  the  eyeballs 
and  a  moderate  distension  of  the  ocular  vessels  would 
ultimately  come,  through  habit,  to  act  on  the  glands. 
We  have  an  analogous  case  in  the  orbicular  muscles 
being  almost  always  contracted  in  some  slight  degree, 
even  during  a  gentle  crying-fit,  when  there  can  be  no 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  173 

distension  of  the  vessels  and  no  uncomfortable  sensation 
excited  within  the  eyes. 

Moreover,  when  complex  actions  or  movements  have 
long  been  performed  in  strict  association  together,  and 
these  are  from  any  cause  at  first  voluntarily  and  after- 
wards habitually  checked,  then  if  the  proper  exciting 
conditions  occur,  any  part  of  the  action  or  movement 
which  is  least  under  the  control  of  the  will,  will  often 
still  be  involuntarily  performed.  The  secretion  by  a 
gland  is  remarkably  free  from  the  influence  of  the  will; 
therefore,  when  with  the  advancing  age  of  the  individ- 
ual, or  with  the  advancing  culture  of  the  race,  the  habit 
of  crying  out  or  screaming  is  restrained,  and  there  is 
consequently  no  distension  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
eye,  it  may  nevertheless  well  happen  that  tears  should 
still  be  secreted.  We  may  see,  as  lately  remarked,  the 
muscles  round  the  eyes  of  a  person  who  reads  a  pathetic 
story,  twitching  or  trembling  in  so  slight  a  degree  as 
hardly  to  be  detected.  In  this  case  there  has  been  no 
screaming  and  no  distension  of  the  blood-vessels,  yet 
through  habit  certain  nerve-cells  send  a  small  amount 
of  nerve-force  to  the  cells  commanding  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes;  and  they  likewise  send  some  to  the  cells 
commanding  the  lacrymal  glands,  for  the  eyes  often 
become  at  the  same  time  Just  moistened  with  tears. 
If  the  twitching  of  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  and  the 
secretion  of  tears  had  been  completely  prevented,  never- 
theless it  is  almost  certain  that  there  would  have  been 
some  tendency  to  transmit  nerve-force  in  these  same 
directions;  and  as  the  lacrymal  glands  are  remarkably 
free  from  the  control  of  the  will,  they  would  be  emi- 
nently liable  still  to  act,  thus  betraying,  though  there 
were  no  other  outward  signs,  the  pathetic  thoughts 
which  were  passing  through  the  person's  mind. 

As  a  further  illustration  of  the  view  here  advanced. 


174  EXPRESSION  OF  SUFFERING:         Chap.  VL 

I  may  remark  that  if,  during  an  early  period  of  life,  when 
habits  of  all  kinds  are  readily  established,  our  infants, 
when  pleased,  had  been  accustomed  to  utter  loud  peals 
of  laughter  (during  which  the  vessels  of  their  eyes  are 
distended)  as  often  and  as  continuously  as  they  have 
yielded  when  distressed  to  screaming-fits,  then  it  is  prob- 
able that  in  after  life  tears  would  have  been  as  copiously 
and  as  regularly  secreted  under  the  one  state  of  mind 
as  under  the  other.  Gentle  laughter,  or  a  smile,  or  even 
a  pleasing  thought,  would  have  sufficed  to  cause  a  mod- 
erate secretion  of  tears.  There  does  indeed  exist  an  evi- 
dent tendency  in  this  direction,  as  will  be  seen  in  a  future 
chapter,  when  we  treat  of  the  tender  feelings.  With  the 
Sandwich  Islanders,  according  to  Freycinet,^*  tears  are 
actually  recognized  as  a  sign  of  happiness;  but  we  should 
require  better  evidence  on  this  head  than  that  of  a  pass- 
ing voyager.  So  again  if  our  infants,  during  many  gen- 
erations, and  each  of  them  during  several  years,  had  al- 
most daily  suffered  from  prolonged  choking-fits,  during 
which  the  vessels  of  the  eye  are  distended  and  tears 
copiously  secreted,  then  it  is  probable,  such  is  the  force 
of  associated  habit,  that  during  after  life  the  mere 
thought  of  a  choke,  without  any  distress  of  mind,  would 
have  sufficed  to  bring  tears  into  our  eyes. 

To  sum  up  this  chapter,  weeping  is  probably  the  re- 
sult of  some  such  chain  of  events  as  follows.  Children, 
when  wanting  food  or  suffering  in  any  way,  cry  out 
loudly,  like  the  young  of  most  other  animals,  partly  as  a 
call  to  their  parents  for  aid,  and  partly  from  any  great 
exertion  serving  as  a  relief.  Prolonged  screaming  in- 
evitably leads  to  the  gorging  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
eye;  and  this  will  have  led,  at  first  consciously  and  at 


"  Quoted  by  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  '  Prehistoric  Times,'  1865, 
p.  458. 


Chap.  VI.  WEEPING.  175 

last  habitually,  to  the  contraction  of  the  muscles  round 
the  eyes  in  order  to  protect  them.  At  the  same  time  the 
spasmodic  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  eye,  and  the 
distension  of  the  vessels  within  the  eye,  without  neces- 
sarily entailing  any  conscious  sensation,  will  have  af- 
fected, through  reflex  action,  the  lacrymal  glands. 
Finally,  through  the  three  principles  of  nerve-force  read- 
ily passing  along  accustomed  channels — of  association, 
which  is  so  widely  extended  in  its  power — and  of  cer- 
tain actions,  being  more  under  the  control  of  the  will 
than  others — it  has  come  to  pass  that  suffering  readily 
causes  the  secretion  of  tears,  without  being  necessarily 
accompanied  by  any  other  action. 

Although  in  accordance  with  this  view  we  must  look 
at  weeping  as  an  incidental  result,  as  purposeless  as  the 
secretion  of  tears  from  a  blow  outside  the  eye,  or  as  a 
sneeze  from  the  retina  being  affected  by  a  bright  light, 
yet  this  does  not  present  any  difficulty  in  our  under- 
standing how  the  secretion  of  tears  serves  as  a  relief  to 
suffering.  And  by  as  much  as  the  weeping  is  more  vio- 
lent or  hysterical,  by  so  much  will  the  relief  be  greater, 
— on  the  same  principle  that  the  writhing  of  the  whole 
body,  the  grinding  of  the  teeth,  and  the  uttering  of 
piercing  shrieks,  all  give  relief  under  an  agony  of  pain. 


176  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VII. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Low  Spieits,  Anxiety,  Grief,  Dejection,  Despaib. 

General  effect  of  grief  on  the  system— Obliquity  of  the 
eyebrows  under  suffering— On  the  cause  of  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  eyebrows— On  the  depression  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth. 

After  the  mind  has  suffered  from  an  acute  parox- 
ysm of  grief,  and  the  cause  still  continues,  we  fall  into  a 
state  of  low  spirits;  or  we  may  be  utterly  cast  down  and 
dejected.  Prolonged  bodily  pain,  if  not  amounting  to 
an  agony,  generally  leads  to  the  same  state  of  mind. 
If  we  expect  to  suffer,  we  are  anxious;  if  we  have  no 
hope  of  relief,  we  despair. 

Persons  suffering  from  excessive  grief  often  seek  re- 
lief by  violent  and  almost  frantic  movements,  as  de- 
scribed in  a  former  chapter;  but  when  their  suffering  is 
somewhat  mitigated,  yet  prolonged,  they  no  longer  wish 
for  action,  but  remain  motionless  and  passive,  or  may 
occasionally  rock  themselves  to  and  fro.  The  circula- 
tion becomes  languid;  the  face  pale;  the  muscles  flaccid; 
the  eyelids  droop;  the  head  hangs  on  the  contracted 
chest;  the  lips,  cheeks,  and  lower  jaw  all  sink  down- 
wards from  their  own  weight.  Hence  all  the  features 
are  lengthened;  and  the  face  of  a  person  who  hears  bad 
news  is  said  to  fall.  A  party  of  natives  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego  endeavoured  to  explain  to  us  that  their  friend, 


Chap.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  177 

the  captain  of  a  sealing  vessel,  was  out  of  spirits,  by 
pulling  down  their  clieeks  with  both  hands,  so  as  to 
make  their  faces  as  long  as  possible.  Mr.  Bunnet  in- 
forms me  that  the  Australian  aborigines  when  out  of 
spirits  have  a  chop-fallen  appearance.  After  prolonged 
suffering  the  eyes  become  dull  and  lack  expression,  and 
are  often  slightly  suffused  with  tears.  The  eyebrows 
not  rarely  are  rendered  oblique,  which  is  due  to  their 
inner  ends  being  raised.  This  produces  peculiarly- 
formed  wrinkles  on  the  forehead,  which  are  very  differ- 
ent from  those  of  a,  simple  frown;  though  in  some  cases 
a  frown  alone  may  be  present.  The  corners  of  the  mouth 
are  drawn  downwards,  which  is  so  universally  recognized 
as  a  sign  of  being  out  of  spirits,  that  it  is  almost  pro- 
verbial. 

The  breathing  becomes  slow  and  feeble,  and  is  often 
interrupted  by  deep  sighs.  As  Gratiolet  remarks,  when- 
ever our  attention  is  long  concentrated  on  any  subject, 
we  forget  to  breathe,  and  then  relieve  ourselves  by  a 
deep  inspiration;  but  the  sighs  of  a  sorrowful  person, 
owing  to  his  slow  respiration  and  languid  circulation, 
are  eminently  characteristic.^  As  the  grief  of  a  person 
in  this  state  occasionally  recurs  and  increases  into  a  par- 
oxysm, spasms  affect  the  respiratory  muscles,  and  he 
feels  as  if  something,  the  so-called  globus  hystericus^ 
was  rising  in  his  throat.  These  spasmodic  movements 
are  clearly  allied  to  the  sobbing  of  children,  and  are 
remnants  of  those  severer  spasms  which  occur  when  a 
person  is  said  to  choke  from  excessive  grief.^ 

^  The  above  descriptive  remarks  are  taken  in  part 
from  my  own  observations,  but  chiefly  from  Gratiolet 
('De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  53,  337;  on  Sighing-,  232),  who 
has  well  treated  this  whole  subject.  See,  also,  Huschke, 
'  Mimices  et  Phyeiog-nomices,  FragTnentum  Physiologi- 
cum,'  1821,  p.  21.  ^  On  the  dulness  of  the  eyes.  Dr.  Piderit, 
*  Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  1867,  s.  65. 

*  On  the  action  of  grief  on  the  organs  of  respiration, 


178  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

Obliquity  of  the  eyebrows. — Two  points  alone  in  the 
above  description  require  further  elucidation,  and  these 
are  very  curious  ones;  namely,  the  raising  of  the  inner 
ends  of  the  eyebrows,  and  the  drawing  down  of  the  cor- 
ners of  the  mouth.  With  respect  to  the  eyebrows,  they 
may  occasionally  be  seen  to  assume  an  oblique  position 
in  persons  suffering  from  deep  dejection  or  anxiety;  for 
instance,  I  have  observed  this  movement  in  a  mother 
whilst  speaking  about  her  sick  son;  and  it  is  sometimes 
excited  by  quite  trifling  or  momentary  causes  of  real  or 
pretended  distress.  The  eyebrows  assume  this  position 
owing  to  the  contraction  of  certain  muscles  (namely,  the 
orbiculars,  corrugators,  and  ppamidals  of  the  nose, 
which  together  tend  to  lower  and  contract  the  eyebrows) 
being  partially  checked  by  the  more  powerful  action  of 
the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  muscle.  These  latter 
fasciae  by  their  contraction  raise  the  inner  ends  alone 
of  the  eyebrows;  and  as  the  corrugators  at  the  same  time 
draw  the  eyebrows  together,  their  inner  ends  become 
puckered  into  a  fold  or  lump.  This  fold  is  a  highly  char- 
acteristic point  in  the  appearance  of  the  eyebrows  when 
rendered  oblique,  as  may  be  seen  in  figs.  2  and  5,  Plate 
II.  The  eyebrows  are  at  the  same  time  somewhat  rough- 
ened, owing  to  the  hairs  being  made  to  project.  Dr.  J. 
Crichton  Browne  has  also  often  noticed  in  melancholic 
patients  who  keep  their  eyebrows  persistently  oblique, 
"  a  peculiar  acute  arching  of  the  upper  eyelid."  A  trace 
of  this  may  be  observed  by  comparing  the  right  and  left 
eyelids  of  the  young  man  in  the  photograph  (fig.  2,  Plate 
II.);  for  he  was  not  able  to  act  equally  on  both  e3^ebrows. 
This  is  also  shown  by  the  unequal  furrows  on  the  two 
sides  of  his  forehead.    The  acute  arching  of  the  eyelids 


see  more  especially  Sir  C.  Bell,  'Anatomy  of  Expression,' 
3rd  edit.  1844,  p.  151. 


Chap.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  179 

depends,  I  believe,  on  the  inner  end  alone  of  the  eye- 
brows being  raised;  for  when  the  whole  eyebrow  is  ele- 
vated and  arched,  the  upper  eyelid  follows  in  a  slight 
degree  the  same  movement. 

But  the  most  conspicuous  result  of  the  opposed  con- 
traction of  the  above-named  muscles,  is  exhibited  by  the 
peculiar  furrows  formed  on  the  forehead.  These  mus- 
cles, when  thus  in  conjoint  yet  opposed  action,  may  be 
called,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  the  grief -muscles.  When 
a  person  elevates  his  eyebrows  by  the  contraction  of  the 
whole  frontal  muscle,  transverse  wrinkles  extend  across 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  forehead;  but  in  the  present 
case  the  middle  fasciae  alone  are  contracted;  consequent- 
ly, transverse  furrows  are  formed  across  the  middle  part 
alone  of  the  forehead.  The  skin  over  the  exterior  parts 
of  both  eyebrows  is  at  the  same  time  drawn  downwards 
and  smooth,  by  the  contraction  of  the  outer  portions  of 
the  orbicular  muscles.  The  eyebrows  are  likewise 
brought  together  through  the  simultaneous  contraction 
of  the  corrugators;  ^  and  this  latter  action  generates 

^  In  the  foregoing"  remarks  on  the  manner  in  which 
the  eyebrows  are  made  oblique,  I  have  followed  what 
seems  to  be  the  universal  opinion  of  all  the  anatomists, 
whose  works  I  have  consulted  on  the  action  of  the  above- 
named  muscles,  or  with  whom  I  have  conversed.  Hence 
throughout  this  work  I  shall  take  a  similar  view  of  the 
action  of  the  corrngator  supercilii,  orbicularis,  pyramidaHs 
nasi,  and  frontalis  muscles.  Dr.  Duchenne,  however,  be- 
lieves, and  every  conclusion  at  which  he  arrives  deserves 
serious  consideration,  that  it  is  the  corrugator,  called  by 
him  the  sourcilier,  which  raises  the  inner  corner  of  the 
eyebrows  and  is  antagonistic  to  the  upper  and  inner 
part  of  the  orbicular  muscle,  as  well  as  to  the  pyramidalis 
nasi  (see  Mecanisme  de  la  Phys.  Humaine,  1862,  folio,  art. 
v.,  text  and  figures  19  to  29:  octavo  edit.  1862,  p.  43  text). 
He  admits,  however,  that  the  corrugator  draws  together 
the  eyebrows,  causing  vertical  furrows  above  the  base  of 
the  nose,  or  a  frown.  He  further  believes  that  towards 
the  outer  two-thirds  of  the  eyebrow  the  corrugator  acts 
in  conjunction  with  the  upper  orbicular  muscle;  both 
here   standing   in   antagonism   to   the   frontal    muscle.     I 


180  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

vertical  furrows,  separating  the  exterior  and  lowered 
part  of  the  skin  of  the  forehead  from  the  central  and 
raised  part.  The  union  of  these  vertical  furrows  with 
the  central  and  transverse  furrows  (see  figs.  2  and  3) 
produces  a  mark  on  the  forehead  which  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  horse-shoe;  but  the  furrows  more  strictly 
form  three  sides  of  a  quadrangle.  They  are  often  con- 
spicuous on  the  foreheads  of  adult  or  nearly  adult  per- 
sons, when  their  eyebrows  are  made  oblique;  but  with 
young  children,  owing  to  their  skin  not  easily  wrinkling, 
they  are  rarely  seen,  or  mere  traces  of  them  can  be  de- 
tected. 

These  peculiar  furrows  are  best  represented  in  fig.  3, 
Plate  II.,  on  the  forehead  of  a  young  lady  who  has  the 
power  in  an  unusual  degree  of  voluntarily  acting  on  the 
requisite  muscles.  As  she  was  absorbed  in  the  attempt, 
whilst  being  photographed,  her  expression  was  not  at 
all  one  of  grief;  I  have  therefore  given  the  forehead 
alone.  Fig.  1  on  the  same  plate,  copied  from  Dr.  Du- 
chenne's  work,*  represents,  on  a  reduced  scale,  the  face, 
in  its  natural  state,  of  a  young  man  who  was  a  good 
actor.     In  fig.  2  he  is  shown  simulating  grief,  but  the 


am  unable  to  understand,  judging  from  Henle's  drawings 
(woodcut,  fig.  3),  how  the  corrugator  can  act  in  the  man- 
ner described  by  Duchenne.  See,  also,  on  this  subject, 
Prof.  Donders'  remarks  in  the  '  Archives  of  Medicine,' 
1870,  vol.  V.  p.  34.  Mr.  J.  Wood,  who  is  so  well  known 
for  liis  careful  study  of  the  muscles  of  the  human  frame, 
informs  me  that  he  believes  the  account  which  I  have 
given  of  the  action  of  the  corrugator  to  be  correct.  But 
this  is  not  a  point  of  any  importance  with  respect  to 
the  expression  w^hich  is  caused  by  the  obliquity  of  the 
eyebrows,  nor  of  much  importance  to  the  theory  of  its 
origin. 

*  I  am  greatly  indebted  to  Dr.  Duchenne  for  permission 
to  have  these  two  photographs  (figs.  1  and  2)  reproduced 
by  the  heliotype  process  from  his  work  in  folio.  Many 
of  the  foregoing  remarks  on  the  furrowing  of  the  skin, 
when  the  eyebrows  are  rendered  oblique,  are  taken  from 
his  excellent  discussion  on  this  subject. 


Chap.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  181 

two  eyebrows,  as  before  remarked,  are  not  equally  acted 
on.  That  the  expression  is  true,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  out  of  fifteen  persons,  to  whom  the  origi- 
nal photograph  was  shown,  \vithout  any  clue  to  what  was 
intended  being  given  them,  fourteen  immediately  an- 
swered, "  despairing  sorrow,"  "  suffering  endurance/' 
"  melancholy,"  and  so  forth.  The  history  of  fig.  5  is 
rather  curious:  I  saw  the  photograph  in  a  shop-window, 
and  took  it  to  Mr.  Rejlander  for  the  sake  of  finding  out 
by  whom  it  had  been  made;  remarking  to  him  how 
pathetic  the  expression  was.  He  answered,  '^  I  made  it, 
and  it  was  likely  to  be  pathetic,  for  the  boy  in  a  few  min- 
utes burst  out  crying."  He  then  showed  me  a  photo- 
graph of  the  same  boy  in  a  placid  state,  which  I  have 
had  (fig.  4)  reproduced.  In  fig.  6,  a  trace  of  obliquity 
in  the  eyebrows  may  be  detected ;  but  this  figure,  as  well 
as  fig.  7,  is  given  to  show  the  depression  of  the  comers 
of  the  mouth,  to  which  subject  I  shall  presently  refer. 

Few  persons,  without  some  practice,  can  voluntarily 
act  on  their  grief-muscles;  but  after  repeated  trials  a 
considerable  number  succeed,  whilst  others  never  can. 
The  degree  of  obliquity  in  the  eyebrows,  whether  as- 
sumed voluntarily  or  unconsciously,  differs  much  in  dif- 
ferent persons.  With  some  who  apparently  have  unusu- 
ally strong  pyramidal  muscles,  the  contraction  of  the 
central  fascise  of  the  frontal  muscle,  although  it  may  be 
energetic,  as  shown  by  the  quadrangular  furrows  on  the 
forehead,  does  not  raise  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows, 
but  only  prevents  their  being  so  much  lowered  as  they 
otherwise  would  have  been.  As  far  as  I  have  been  able 
to  observe,  the  grief-muscles  are  brought  into  action 
much  more  frequently  by  children  and  women  than  by 
men.  They  are  rarely  acted  on,  at  least  with  grown-up 
persons,  from  bodily  pain,  but  almost  exclusively  from 
mental  distress.    Two  persons  who,  after  some  practice. 


182  EXPRESSION  OP  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

succeeded  in  acting  on  their  grief-muscles,  found  by 
looking  at  a  mirror  that  when  they  made  their  eyebrows 
oblique,  they  unintentionally  at  the  same  time  depressed 
the  corners  of  their  mouths;  and  this  is  often  the  case 
when  the  expression  is  naturally  assumed. 

The  power  to  bring  the  grief-muscles  freely  into  play 
appears  to  be  hereditary,  like  almost  every  other  human 
faculty.  A  lady  belonging  to  a  family  famous  for  hav- 
ing produced  an  extraordinary  number  of  great  actors 
and  actresses,  and  who  can  herself  give  this  expression 
"  with  singular  precision,"  told  Dr.  Crichton  Browne 
that  all  her  family  had  possessed  the  power  in  a  remark- 
able degree.  The  same  hereditary  tendency  is  said  to 
have  extended,  as  I  likewise  hear  from  Dr.  Browne,  to 
the  last  descendant  of  the  family,  which  gave  rise  to 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  of  '  Eed  Gauntlet; '  but  the 
hero  is  described  as  contracting  his  forehead  into  a  horse- 
shoe mark  from  any  strong  emotion.  I  have  also  seen 
a  young  woman  whose  forehead  seemed  almost  habit- 
ually thus  contracted,  independently  of  any  emotion 
being  at  the  time  felt. 

The  grief-muscles  are  not  very  frequently  brought 
into  play;  and  as  the  action  is  often  momentary,  it  easily 
escapes  observation.  Although  the  expression,  when  ob- 
served, is  universally  and  instantly  recognized  as  that 
of  grief  or  anxiety,  yet  not  one  person  out  of  a  thousand 
who  has  never  studied  the  subject,  is  able  to  say  precisely 
what  change  passes  over  the  sufferer's  face.  Hence  prob- 
ably it  is  that  this  expression  is  not  even  alluded  to,  as 
far  as  I  have  noticed,  in  any  work  of  fiction,  with  the 
exception  of  ^  Eed  Gauntlet '  and  of  one  other  novel; 
and  the  authoress  of  the  latter,  as  I  am  informed,  be- 
longs to  the  famous  family  of  actors  just  alluded  to;  so 
that  her  attention  may  have  been  specially  called  to  the 
subject. 


Chap.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  183 

The  ancient  Greek  sculptors  were  familiar  with  the 
expression,  as  shown  in  the  statues  of  the  Laocoon  and 
Arretino;  but,  as  Duchenne  remarks,  they  carried  the 
transverse  furrows  across  the  whole  breadth  of  the  fore- 
head, and  thus  committed  a  great  anatomical  mistake: 
this  is  likewise  the  case  in  some  modern  statues.  It  is, 
however,  more  probable  that  these  wonderfully  accurate 
observers  intentionally  sacrificed  truth  for  the  sake  of 
beauty,  than  that  they  made  a  mistake;  for  rectangular 
furrows  on  the  forehead  would  not  have  had  a  grand 
appearance  on  the  marble.  The  expression,  in  its  fully 
developed  condition,  is,  as  far  as  I  can  discover,  not 
often  represented  in  pictures  by  the  old  masters,  no 
doubt  owing  to  the  same  cause;  but  a  lady  who  is  per- 
fectly familiar  with  this  expression,  informs  me  that  in 
Fra  Angelico's  *  Descent  from  the  Cross,'  in  Florence,  it 
is  clearly  exhibited  in  one  of  the  figures  on  the  right- 
hand;  and  I  could  add  a  few  other  instances. 

Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  at  my  request,  closely  attended 
to  this  expression  in  the  numerous  insane  patients  under 
his  care  in  the  \Y'est  Kiding  Asylum;  and  he  is  familiar 
with  Duchenne's  photographs  of  the  action  of  the  grief- 
muscles.  He  informs  me  that  they  may  constantly  be 
seen  in  energetic  action  in  cases  of  melancholia,  and 
especially  of  hypochondria;  and  that  the  persistent  lines 
or  furrows,  due  to  their  habitual  contraction,  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  physiognomy  of  the  insane  belonging 
to  these  two  classes.  Dr.  Browne  carefully  observed  for 
me  during  a  considerable  period  three  cases  of  hypochon- 
dria, in  which  the  grief-Muscles  were  persistently  con- 
tracted. In  one  of  these,  a  widow,  aged  51,  fancied  that 
she  had  lost  all  her  viscera,  and  that  her  whole  body  was 
empty.  She  wore  an  expression  of  great  distress,  and 
beat  her  semi-closed  hands  rhythmically  together  for 
hours.    The  grief-muscles  were  permanently  contracted. 


IQ4:  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

and  the  upper  eyelids  arched.  This  condition  lasted  for 
months;  she  then  recovered,  and  her  countenance  re- 
sumed its  natural  expression.  A  second  case  presented 
nearly  the  same  pecuharities,  with  the  addition  that  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  were  depressed. 

Mr.  Patrick  Nicol  has  also  kindly  observed  for  me 
several  cases  in  the  Sussex  Lunatic  Asylum,  and  has 
communicated  to  me  full  details  with  respect  to  three 
of  them;  but  they  need  not  here  be  given.  From  his 
observations  on  melancholic  patients,  Mr.  Nicol  con- 
cludes that  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows  are  almost 
always  more  or  less  raised,  with  the  wrinkles  on  the  fore- 
head more  or  less  plainly  marked.  In  the  case  of  one 
young  woman,  these  wrinkles  were  observed  to  be  in 
constant  slight  play  or  movement.  In  some  cases  the 
corners  of  the  mouth  are  depressed,  but  often  only  in 
a  slight  degree.  Some  amount  of  difference  in  the  ex- 
pression of  the  several  melanchoUc  patients  could  almost 
always  be  observed.  The  eyelids  generally  droop;  and 
the  skin  near  their  outer  corners  and  beneath  them  is 
wrinkled.  The  naso-labial  fold,  which  runs  from  the 
wings  of  the  nostrils  to  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  and 
which  is  so  conspicuous  in  blubbering  children,  is  often 
plainly  marked  in  these  patients. 

Although  with  the  insane  the  grief-muscles  often  act 
persistently;  yet  in  ordinary  cases  they  are  sometimeer 
brought  unconsciously  into  momentary  action  by  ludi- 
crously slight  causes.  A  gentleman  rewarded  a  young 
lady  by  an  absurdly  small  present;  she  pretended  to  be 
offended,  and  as  she  upbraided  him,  her  eyebrows  be- 
came extremely  oblique,  with  the  forehead  properly 
wrinkled.  Another  young  lady  and  a  youth,  both  in 
the  highest  spirits,  were  eagerly  talking  together  with 
extraordinary  rapidity;  and  I  noticed  that,  as  often  as 
the  young  lady  was  beaten,  and  could  not  get  out  her 


Chap.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  186 

words  fast  enough,  her  eyebrows  went  obliquely  up- 
wards, and  rectangular  furrows  were  formed  on  her  fore- 
head. She  thus  each  time  hoisted  a  flag  of  distress;  and 
this  she  did  lialf-a-dozen  times  in  the  course  of  a  few 
minutes.  I  made  no  remark  on  the  subject,  but  on  a  sub- 
sequent occasion  I  asked  her  to  act  on  her  grief-muscles; 
another  girl  who  was  present,  and  who  could  do  so  vol- 
untarily, showing  her  what  was  intended.  She  tried  re- 
peatedly, but  utterly  failed;  yet  so  slight  a  cause  of  dis- 
tress as  not  being  able  to  talk  quickly  enough,  sufficed 
to  bring  these  muscles  over  and  over  again  into  energetic 
action. 

The  expression  of  grief,  due  to  the  contraction  of  the 
grief-muscles,  is  by  no  means  confined  to  Europeans, 
but  appears  to  be  common  to  all  the  races  of  mankind. 
I  have,  at  least,  received  trustworthy  accounts  in  re- 
gard to  Hindoos,  Dhangars  (one  of  the  aboriginal  hill- 
tribes  of  India,  and  therefore  belonging  to  a  quite  dis- 
tinct race  from  the  Hindoos),  Malays,  Negroes  and  Aus- 
tralians. With  respect  to  the  latter,  two  observers  an- 
swer my  query  in  the  affirmative,  but  enter  into  no 
details.  Mr.  Taplin,  however,  appends  to  my  descriptive 
remarks  the  words  "  this  is  exact."  With  respect  to 
negroes,  the  lady  who  told  me  of  Fra  Angelico's  picture, 
saw  a  negro  towing  a  boat  on  the  Nile,  and  as  he  encoun- 
tered an  obstruction,  she  observed  his  grief-muscles  in 
strong  action,  with  the  middle  of  the  forehead  well  wrin- 
kled. Mr.  Geach  watched  a  Malay  man  in  Malacca,  with 
the  corners  of  his  mouth  much  depressed,  the  eyebrows 
oblique,  with  deep  short  grooves  on  the  forehead.  This 
expression  lasted  for  a  very  short  time;  and  Mr.  Geach 
remarks  it  "  was  a  strange  one,  very  much  like  a  person 
about  to  cry  at  some  great  loss." 

In  India  Mr.  H.  Erskine  found  that  the  natives  were 
familiar  with  this  expression;  and  Mr.  J.  Scott,  of  the 
13 


186  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

Botanic  Gardens,  Calcutta,  has  obligingly  sent  me  a  full 
description  of  two  cases.  He  observed  during  some  time, 
himself  unseen,  a  very  young  Dhangar  woman  from  Nag- 
pore,  the  wife  of  one  of  the  gardeners,  nursing  her  baby 
who  was  at  the  point  of  death;  and  he  distinctly  saw  the 
eyebrows  raised  at  the  inner  corners,  the  eyelids  droop- 
ing, the  forehead  wrinkled  in  the  middle,  the  mouth 
slightly  open,  with  the  corners  much  depressed.  He 
then  came  from  behind  a  screen  of  plants  and  spoke  to 
the  poor  woman,  who  started,  burst  into  a  bitter  flood 
of  tears,  and  besought  him  to  cure  her  baby.  The  sec- 
ond case  was  that  of  a  Hindustani  man,  who  from  illness 
and  poverty  was  compelled  to  sell  his  favourite  goat. 
After  receiving  the  money,  he  repeatedly  looked  at  the 
money  in  his  hand  and  then  at  the  goat,  as  if  doubting 
whether  he  would  not  return  it.  He  went  to  the  goat, 
which  was  tied  up  ready  to  be  led  away,  and  the  animal 
reared  up  and  licked  his  hands.  His  eyes  then  wavered 
from  side  to  side;  his  "  mouth  was  partially  closed,  with 
the  corners  very  decidedly  depressed."  At  last  the  poor 
man  seemed  to  make  up  his  mind  that  he  must  part  with 
his  goat,  and  then,  as  ^Ir.  Scott  saw,  the  eyebrows  be- 
came slightly  oblique,  with  the  characteristic  puckering 
or  swelling  at  the  inner  ends,  but  the  wrinkles  on  the 
forehead  were  not  present.  The  man  stood  thus  for  a 
minute,  then  heaving  a  deep  sigh,  burst  into  tears,  raised 
up  his  two  hands,  blessed  the  goat,  turned  round,  and 
without  looking  again,  went  away. 

On  the  cause  of  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  under 
suffering. — During  several  years  no  expression  seemed 
to  me  so  utterly  perplexing  as  this  which  we  are  here 
considering.  Why  should  grief  or  anxiety  cause  the 
central  fasciae  alone  of  the  frontal  muscle  together  with 
those  round  the  eyes,  to  contract?  Here  we  seem  to 
have  a  complex  movement  for  the  sole  purpose  of  ex- 


Chap.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  187 

pressing  grief;  and  yet  it  is  a  comparatively  rare  expres- 
sion, and  often  overlooked.  I  believe  the  explanation  is 
not  so  difficult  as  it  at  first  appears.  Dr.  Duchenne 
gives  a  photograph  of  the  young  man  before  referred  to, 
who,  when  looking  upwards  at  a  strongly  illuminated 
surface,  involuntarily  contracted  his  grief-muscles  in  an 
exaggerated  manner.  I  had  entirely  forgotten  this 
photograph,  when  on  a  very  bright  day  with  the  sun 
behind  me,  I  met,  whilst  on  horseback,  a  girl  whose  eye- 
brows, as  she  looked  up  at  me,  became  extremely  oblique, 
with  the  proper  furrows  on  her  forehead.  I  have  ob- 
served the  same  movement  under  similar  circumstances 
on  several  subsequent  occasions.  On  my  return  home 
I  made  three  of  my  children,  without  giving  them  any 
clue  to  my  object,  look  as  long  and  as  attentively  as  they 
could,  at  the  summit  of  a  tall  tree  standing  against  an 
extremely  bright  sky.  With  all  three,  the  orbicular, 
corrugator,  and  pyramidal  muscles  were  energetically 
contracted,  through  reflex  action,  from  the  excitement 
of  the  retina,  so  that  their  eyes  might  be  protected  from 
the  bright  light.  But  they  tried  their  utmost  to  look 
upwards;  and  now  a  curious  struggle,  with  spasmodic 
twitchings,  could  be  observed  between  the  whole  or  only 
the  central  portion  of  the  frontal  muscle,  and  the  sev- 
eral muscles  which  serve  to  lower  the  eyebrows  and  close 
the  eyelids.  The  involuntary  contraction  of  the  pyram- 
idal caused  the  basal  part  of  their  noses  to  be  trans- 
versely and  deeply  wrinkled.  In  one  of  the  three  chil- 
dren, the  whole  eyebrows  were  momentarily  raised  and 
lowered  by  the  alternate  contraction  of  the  whole  frontal 
muscle  and  of  the  muscles  surrounding  the  eyes,  so  that 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  forehead  was  alternately  wrin- 
kled and  smoothed.  In  the  other  two  children  the  fore- 
head became  wrinkled  in  the  middle  part  alone,  rectan- 
gular furrows  being  thus  produced;  and  the  eyebrows 


188  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

were  rendered  oblique,  with  their  inner  extremities  puck- 
ered and  swollen; — in  the  one  child  in  a  slight  degree, 
in  the  other  in  a  strongly  marked  manner.  This  differ- 
ence in  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  apparently  de- 
pended on  a  difference  in  their  general  mobility,  and 
in  the  strength  of  the  pyramidal  muscles.  In  both  these 
cases  the  eyebrows  and  forehead  were  acted  on  under 
the  influence  of  a  strong  light,  in  precisely  the  same 
manner,  in  every  characteristic  detail,  as  under  the  in- 
fluence of  grief  or  anxiety. 

Duchenne  states  that  the  pyramidal  muscle  of  the 
nose  is  less  under  the  control  of  the  will  than  are  the 
other  muscles  round  the  eyes.  He  remarks  that  the 
young  man  who  could  so  well  act  on  his  grief-muscles, 
as  well  as  on  most  of  his  other  facial  muscles,  could  not 
contract  the  pyramidals.'^  This  power,  however,  no 
doubt  differs  in  different  persons.  The  pyramidal  mus- 
cle serves  to  draw  down  the  skin  of  the  forehead  be- 
tween the  eyebrows,  together  with  their  inner  extremi- 
ties. The  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  are  the  antago- 
nists of  the  p\Tamidal;  and  if  the  action  of  the  latter  is 
to  be  specially  checked,  these  central  fasciae  must  be 
contracted.  So  that  with  persons  having  powerful  pyram- 
idal muscles,  if  there  is  under  the  influence  of  a  bright 
light  an  unconscious  desire  to  prevent  the  lowering  of 
the  eyebrows,  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  muscle 
must  be  brought  into  play;  and  their  contraction,  if  suf- 
ficiently strong  to  overmaster  the  pyramidals,  together 
with  the  contraction  of  the  corrugator  and  orbicular 
muscles,  will  act  in  the  manner  Just  described  on  the 
eyebrows  and  forehead. 

When  children  scream  or  cry  out,  they  contract,  as 
we  know,  the  orbicular,  corrugator,  and  pyramidal  mus- 

'  Mecanisme  de  la  Phys.  Humaine,  Album,  p.  15, 


Chap.  VII.  OBLIQUE  EYEBROWS.  189 

cJes,  primarily  for  the  sake  of  compressing  their  eyes, 
aiiJ  thus  protecting  them  from  being  gorged  with  blood, 
and  secondarily  through  habit.  I  therefore  expected 
to  find  with  children,  that  when  they  endeavoured  either 
to  prevent  a  crying-fit  from  coming  on,  or  to  stop  crying, 
they  would  check  the  contraction  of  the  above-named 
muscles,  in  the  same  manner  as  when  looking  upwards 
at  a  bright  light;  and  consequently  that  the  central  fas- 
ciae of  the  frontal  muscle  would  often  be  brought  into 
play.  Accordingly,  I  began  myself  to  observe  children 
at  such  times,  and  asked  others,  including  some  medical 
men,  to  do  the  same.  It  is  necessary  to  observe  care- 
fully, as  the  peculiar  opposed  action  of  these  muscles 
is  not  nearly  so  plain  in  children,  owing  to  their  fore- 
heads not  easily  wrinkling,  as  in  adults.  But  I  soon 
found  that  the  grief-muscles  were  very  frequently 
brought  into  distinct  action  on  these  occasions.  It  would 
be  superfluous  to  give  all  the  cases  wliich  have  been  ob- 
served; and  I  will  specify  only  a  few.  A  little  girl,  a 
year  and  a  half  old,  was  teased  by  some  other  children, 
and  before  bursting  into  tears  her  eyebrows  became  de- 
cidedly oblique.  With  an  older  girl  the  same  obliquity 
was  observed,  with  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows  plain- 
ly puckered;  and  at  the  same  time  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  were  drawn  downwards.  As  soon  as  she  burst 
into  tears,  the  features  all  changed  and  this  peculiar 
expression  vanished.  Again,  after  a  little  boy  had  been 
vaccinated,  which  made  him  scream  and  cry  violently, 
the  surgeon  gave  him  an  orange  brought  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  this  pleased  the  child  much;  as  he  stopped 
crying  all  the  characteristic  movements  were  observed, 
including  the  formation  of  rectangular  wrinkles  in  the 
middle  of  the  forehead.  Lastly,  I  met  on  the  road  a 
little  girl  three  or  four  years  old,  who  had  been  fright- 
ened by  a  dog,  and  when  I  asked  her  what  was  the  mat- 


190  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

ter,  she  stopped  whimpering,  and  her  eyebrows  instantly 
became  oblique  to  an  extraordinary  degree. 

Here  then,  as  I  cannot  doubt,  we  have  the  key  to 
the  problem  why  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  mus- 
cle and  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  contract  in  oppo- 
sition to  each  other  under  the  influence  of  grief; — wheth- 
er their  contraction  be  prolonged,  as  with  the  melan- 
cholic insane,  or  momentary,  from  some  trifling  cause 
of  distress.  We  have  all  of  us,  as  infants,  repeatedly 
contracted  our  orbicular,  corrugator,  and  pyramidal  mus- 
cles, in  order  to  protect  our  eyes  whilst  screaming;  our 
progenitors  before  us  have  done  the  same  during  many 
generations;  and  though  with  advancing  years  we  easily 
prevent,  when  feeling  distressed,  the  utterance  of 
screams,  we  cannot  from  long  habit  always  prevent  a 
slight  contraction  of  the  above-named  muscles;  nor  in- 
deed do  we  observe  their  contraction  in  ourselves,  or 
attempt  to  stop  it,  if  slight.  But  the  pyramidal  mus- 
cles seem  to  be  less  under  the  command  of  the  will  than 
the  other  related  muscles;  and  if  they  be  well  devel- 
oped, their  contraction  can  be  checked  only  by  the  an- 
tagonistic contraction  of  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal 
muscle.  The  result  which  necessarily  follows,  if  these 
fasciae  contract  energetically,  is  the  oblique  drawing  up 
of  the  eyebrows,  the  puckering  of  their  inner  ends,  and 
the  formation  of  rectangular  furrows  on  the  middle  of  the 
forehead.  As  children  and  women  cry  much  more  freely 
than  men,  and  as  grown-up  persons  of  both  sexes  rarely 
weep  except  from  mental  distress,  we  can  understand 
why  the  grief -muscles  are  more  frequently  seen  in  action, 
as  I  believe  to  be  the  case,  with  children  and  women 
than  with  men;  and  with  adults  of  both  sexes  from  men- 
tal distress  alone.  In  some  of  the  cases  before  recorded, 
as  in  that  of  the  poor  Dhangar  woman  and  of  the  Hin- 
dustani man,  the  action  of  the  grief -muscles  was  quickly 


Chap.  VII.  DEPRESSED  CORNERS  OF  THE  MOUTH.    191 

followed  by  bitter  weeping.  In  all  eases  of  distress, 
whether  great  or  small,  our  brains  tend  through  long 
habit  to  send  an  order  to  certain  muscles  to  contract, 
as  if  we  were  still  infants  on  the  point  of  screaming  out; 
but  this  order  we,  by  the  wondrous  power  of  the  will, 
and  through  habit,  are  able  partially  to  counteract;  al- 
though this  is  effected  unconsciously,  as  far  as  the  means 
of  counteraction  are  concerned. 

On  the  depression  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth, — This 
action  is  effected  by  the  depressores  anguili  oris  (see  let- 
ter K  in  figs.  1  and  2).  The  fibres  of  this  muscle  diverge 
downwards,  with  the  upper  convergent  ends  attached 
round  the  angles  of  the  mouth,  and  to  the  lower  lip 
a  little  way  within  the  angles.^  Some  of  the  fibres  ap- 
pear to  be  antagonistic  to  the  great  zygomatic  muscle, 
and  others  to  the  several  muscles  running  to  the  outer 
part  of  the  upper  lip.  The  contraction  of  this  muscle 
draws  downwards  and  outwards  the  corners  of  the 
mouth,  including  the  outer  part  of  the  upper  lip,  and 
even  in  a  slight  degree  the  wings  of  the  nostrils.  When 
the  mouth  is  closed  and  this  muscle  acts,  the  commis- 
sure or  line  of  Junction  of  the  two  lips  forms  a  curved 
line  with  the  concavity  downwards,^  and  the  lips  them- 
selves are  generally  somewhat  protruded,  especially  the 
lower  one.  The  mouth  in  this  state  is  well  represented 
in  the  two  photographs  (Plate  II.,  figs.  6  and  7)  by  Mr. 
Rejlander.  The  upper  boy  (fig.  6)  had  just  stopped  cry- 
ing, after  receiving  a  slap  on  the  face  from  another  boy; 
and  the  right  moment  was  seized  for  photographing  him. 


"  Henle,  Handbuch  der  Anat.  des  Menschen,  1858,  B. 
i.  s.  148,  fig-s.  68  and  69. 

^  See  the  account  of  the  action  of  this  muscle  by  Dr. 
Duchenne,  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine, 
Album  (1862),  viii.  p.  34. 


192  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VIL 

The  expression  of  low  spirits,  grief  or  dejection,  due 
to  the  contraction  of  this  muscle  has  been  noticed  by 
every  one  who  has  written  on  the  subject.  To  say  that 
a  person  "  is  down  in  the  mouth,"  is  synonymous  with 
saying  that  he  is  out  of  spirits.  The  depression  of  the 
corners  may  often  be  seen,  as  already  stated  on  the  an-- 
thority  of  Dr.  Crichton  Browne  and  Mr.  Mcol,  with  the 
melancholic  insane,  and  was  well  exhibited  in  some 
photographs  sent  to  me  by  the  former  gentleman,  of 
patients  with  a  strong  tendency  to  suicide.  It  has  been 
observed  with  men  belonging  to  various  races,  namely 
with  Hindoos,  the  dark  hill-tribes  of  India,  Malays,  and, 
as  the  Eev.  Mr.  Hagenauer  informs  me,  with  the  abo- 
rigines of  Australia. 

When  infants  scream  they  firmly  contract  the  mus- 
cles round  their  eyes,  and  this  draws  up  the  upper  lip; 
and  as  they  have  to  keep  their  mouths  widely  open,  the 
depressor  muscles  running  to  the  corners  are  likewise 
brought  into  strong  action.  This  generally,  but  not 
invariably,  causes  a  slight  angular  bend  in  the  lower 
lip  on  both  sides,  near  the  corners  of  the  mouth.  The 
result  of  the  upper  and  lower  lip  being  thus  acted  on, 
is  that  the  mouth  assumes  a  squarish  outline.  The  con- 
tra-ction  of  the  depressor  muscle  is  best  seen  in  infants 
when  not  screaming  violently,  and  especially  just  before 
they  begin,  or  when  they  cease  to  scream.  Their  little 
faces  then  acquire  an  extremely  piteous  expression,  as 
I  continually  observed  with  my  own  infants  between 
the  ages  of  about  six  weeks  and  two  or  three  months. 
Sometimes,  when  they  are  struggling  against  a  crying- 
fit,  the  outline  of  the  mouth  is  curved  in  so  exaggerated  a 
manner  as  to  be  like  a  horseshoe;  and  the  expression  of 
misery  then  becomes  a  ludicrous  caricature. 

The  explanation  of  the  contraction  of  this  muscle, 
under  the  influence  of  low  spirits  or  dejection,  appar- 


Chap.  VII.  DEPRESSED  CORNERS  OP  THE  MOUTH.    I93 

ently  follows  from  the  same  general  principles  as  in  the 
case  of  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows.  Dr.  Duchenne 
informs  me  that  he  concludes  from  his  observations,  now 
prolonged  during  many  years,  that  this  is  one  of  the 
facial  muscles  which  is  least  under  the  control  of  the 
will.  This  fact  may  indeed  be  inferred  from  what  has 
just  been  stated  with  respect  to  infants  when  doubtfully 
beginning  to  cry,  or  endeavouring  to  stop  crying;  for 
they  then  generally  command  all  the  other  facial  mus- 
cles more  effectually  than  they  do  the  depressors  of  the 
corners  of  the  mouth.  Two  excellent  observers  who 
had  no  theory  on  the  subject,  one  of  them  a  surgeon, 
carefully  watched  for  me  some  older  children  and  women 
as  with  some  opposed  struggling  they  very  gradually 
approached  the  point  of  bursting  out  into  tears;  and 
both  observers  felt  sure  that  the  depressors  began  to 
act  before  any  of  the  other  muscles.  Now  as  the  de- 
pressors have  been  repeatedly  brought  into  strong  action 
during  infancy  in  many  generations,  nerve-force  will 
tend  to  flow,  on  the  principle  of  long  associated  habit, 
to  these  muscles  as  well  as  to  various  other  facial  mus- 
cles, whenever  in  after  life  even  a  slight  feeling  of  dis- 
tress is  experienced.  But  as  the  depressors  are  some- 
what less  under  the  control  of  the  will  than  most  of  the 
other  muscles,  we  might  expect  that  they  would  often 
slightly  contract,  whilst  the  others  remained  passive. 
It  is  remarkable  how  small  a  depression  of  the  corners 
of  the  mouth  gives  to  the  countenance  an  expression  of 
low  spirits  or  dejection,  so  that  an  extremely  slight  con- 
traction of  these  muscles  would  be  sufficient  to  betray 
this  state  of  mind. 

I  may  here  mention  a  trifling  observation,  as  it  will 
serve  to  sum  up  our  present  subject.  An  old  lady  with 
a  comfortable  but  absorbed  expression  sat  nearly  oppo- 


194  EXPRESSION  OF  GRIEF:  Chap.  VII. 

site  to  me  in  a  railway  carriage.  Whilst  I  was  looking 
at  her,  I  saw  that  her  depreasores  anguli  oris  became 
very  slightly,  yet  decidedly,  contracted;  but  as  her 
countenance  remained  as  placid  as  ever,  I  reflected  how 
meaningless  was  this  contraction,  and  how  easily  one 
might  be  deceived.  The  thought  had  hardly  occurred 
to  me  when  I  saw  that  her  eyes  suddenly  became  suf- 
fused wdth  tears  almost  to  overflowing,  and  her  whole 
countenance  fell.  There  could  now  be  no  doubt  that 
some  painful  recollection,  perhaps  that  of  a  long-lost 
child,  was  passing  through  her  mind.  As  soon  as  her 
sensorium  was  thus  affected,  certain  nerve-cells  from 
long  habit  instantly  transmitted  an  order  to  all  the  re- 
spiratory muscles,  and  to  those  round  the  mouth,  to  pre- 
pare for  a  fit  of  crying.  But  the  order  was  counter- 
manded by  the  will,  or  rather  by  a  later  acquired  habit, 
and  all  the  muscles  were  obedient,  excepting  in  a  slight 
degree  the  depressores  anguli  oris.  The  mouth  was  not 
even  opened;  the  respiration  w^as  not  hurried;  and  no 
muscle  was  affected  except  those  which  draw  down  the 
corners  of  the  mouth. 

As  soon  as  the  mouth  of  this  lady  began,  involun- 
tarily and  unconsciously  on  her  part,  to  assume  the 
proper  form  for  a  crying-fit,  we  may  feel  almost  sure 
that  some  nerve-influence  would  have  been  transmitted 
through  the  long  accustomed  channels  to  the  various 
respiratory  muscles,  as  well  as  to  those  round  the  eyes, 
and  to  the  vaso-motor  centre  which  governs  the  supply  of 
blood  sent  to  the  lacrymal  glands.  Of  this  latter  fact  we 
have  indeed  clear  evidence  in  her  eyes  becoming  slightly 
suffused  with  tears;  and  we  can  understand  this,  as  the 
lacrymal  glands  are  less  under  the  control  of  the  will 
than  the  facial  muscles.  N"o  doubt  there  existed  at  the 
same  time  some  tendency  in  the  muscles  round  the  eyes 
at  contract,  as  if  for  the  sake  of  protecting  them  from 


Chap.  VII.  DEPRESSED  CORNERS  OF  THE  MOUTH.    195 

being  gorged  with  blood,  but  this  contraction  was  com- 
pletely overmastered,  and  her  brow  remained  unruffled. 
Had  the  pyramidal,  corrugator,  and  orbicular  muscles 
been  as  little  obedient  to  the  will,  as  they  are  in  many 
persons,  they  would  have  been  slightly  acted  on;  and 
then  the  central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  muscle  would  have 
contracted  in  antagonism,  and  her  eyebrows  would  have 
become  oblique,  with  rectangular  furrows  on  her  fore- 
head. Her  countenance  would  then  have  expressed  still 
more  plainly  than  it  did  a  state  of  dejection,  or  rather 
one  of  grief. 

Through  steps  such  as  these  we  can  understand  how 
it  is,  that  as  soon  as  some  melancholy  thought  passes 
through  the  brain,  there  occurs  a  just  perceptible  draw- 
ing down  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  or  a  slight  raising 
up  of  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows,  or  both  movements 
combined,  and  immediately  afterwards  a  slight  suffu- 
sion of  tears.  A  thrill  of  nerve-force  is  transmitted  along 
several  habitual  channels,  and  produces  an  effect  on  any 
point  where  the  will  has  not  acquired  through  long 
habit  much  power  of  interference.  The  above  actions 
may  be  considered  as  rudimental  vestiges  of  the  scream- 
ing-fits, which  are  so  frequent  and  prolonged  during 
infancy.  In  this  case,  as  well  as  in  many  others,  the 
links  are  indeed  wonderful  which  connect  cause  and 
effect  in  giving  rise  to  various  expressions  on  the  human 
countenance;  and  they  explain  to  us  the  meaning  of 
certain  movements,  w^hich  we  involuntarily  and  uncon- 
sciously perform,  whenever  certain  transitory  emotions 
pass  through  our  minds. 


196  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY:  Chap.  Vm. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Joy,  High  Spirits,  Love,  Tender  Feelings, 
Devotion. 

Laughter  primarily  the  expression  of  joy — Ludicrous  ideas 
— Movements  of  the  features  during-  laug-hter — Nature 
of  the  sound  produced — The  secretion  of  tears  during 
loud  laughter — Gradation  from  loud  laughter  to  gentle 
smiling — High  spirits — The  expression  of  love — Tender 
feelings — Devotion. 

Joy,  when  intense,  leads  to  various  purposeless  move- 
ments— to  dancing  about,  clapping  the  hands,  stamping, 
&c.,  and  to  loud  laughter.  Laughter  seems  primarily 
to  be  the  expression  of  mere  joy  or  happiness.  We 
clearly  see  this  in  children  at  play,  who  are  almost  inces- 
santly laughing.  With  young  persons  past  childhood, 
when  they  are  in  high  spirits,  there  is  always  much 
meaningless  laughter.  The  laughter  of  the  gods  is  de- 
scribed by  Homer  as  "  the  exuberance  of  their  celestial 
joy  after  their  daily  banquet."  A  man  smiles — and 
smiling,  as  we  shall  see,  graduates  into  laughter — at 
meeting  an  old  friend  in  the  street,  as  he  does  at  any 
trifling  pleasure,  such  as  smelling  a  sweet  perfume.^ 
Laura  Bridgman,  from  her  blindness  and  deafness,  could 
not  have  acquired  any  expression  through  imitation, 
yet  when  a  letter  from  a  beloved  friend  was  communi- 
cated to  her  by  gesture-language,  she  "  laughed ,  and 

^  Herbert  Spencer,  '  Essays  Scientific,'  &c.,  1858,  p.  360. 


Chap.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  19 7 

clapped  her  hands,  and  the  colour  mounted  to  her 
cheeks/'  On  other  occasions  she  has  been  seen  to  stamp 
for  joy.^ 

Idiots  and  imbecile  persons  likewise  afford  good  evi- 
dence that  laughter  or  smiling  primarily  expresses  mere 
happiness  or  joy.  Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  to  whom,  as 
on  so  many  other  occasions,  I  am  indebted  for  the  results 
of  his  wide  experience,  informs  me  that  with  idiots 
laughter  is  the  most  prevalent  and  frequent  of  all  the 
emotional  expressions.  Many  idiots  are  morose,  pas- 
sionate, restless,  in  a  painful  state  of  mind,  or  utterly 
stolid,  and  these  never  laugh.  Others  frequently  laugh 
in  a  quite  senseless  manner.  Thus  an  idiot  boy,  incapa- 
ble of  speech,  complained  to  Dr.  Browne,  by  the  aid  of 
signs,  that  another  boy  in  the  asylum  had  given  him 
a  black  eye;  and  this  was  accompanied  by  "  explosions* 
of  laughter  and  with  his  face  covered  with  the  broadest 
smiles."  There  is  another  large  class  of  idiots  who  are 
persistently  joyous  and  benign,  and  who  are  constantly 
laughing  or  smiling.-^  Their  countenances  often  exhibit 
a  stereotyped  smile;  their  joyousness  is  increased,  and 
they  grin,  chuckle,  or  giggle,  whenever  food  is  placed 
before  them,  or  when  they  are  caressed,  are  showTi  bright 
colours,  or  hear  music.  Some  of  them  laugh  more  than 
usual  when  they  walk  about,  or  attempt  any  muscular 
exertion.  The  joyousness  of  most  of  these  idiots  cannot 
possibly  be  associated,  as  Dr.  Browne  remarks,  with  any 
distinct  ideas:  they  simply  feel  pleasure,  and  express 
it  by  laughter  or  smiles.  With  imbeciles  rather  higher 
in  the  scale,  personal  vanity  seems  to  be  the  commonest 
cause  of  laughter,  and  next  to  this,  pleasure  arising  from 
the  approbation  of  their  conduct. 


*  F.  Lieber  on  the  vocal  sounds  of  L.  BridgTnan,  '  Smith- 
sonian Contributions,'  1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  6. 

*  See,  also,  Mr.  Marshall,  in  Phil.  Transact.  1864,  p.  526. 


198  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY:  Chap.  VIII. 

With  grown-up  persons  laughter  is  excited  by  causes 
considerably  different  from  those  which  suffice  during 
childhood;  but  this  remark  hardly  applies  to  smiling. 
Laughter  in  this  respect  is  analogous  with  weeping, 
which  with  adults  is  almost  confined  to  mental  distress, 
whilst  with  children  it  is  excited  by  bodily  pain  or  any 
suffering,  as  well  as  by  fear  or  rage.  Many  curious  dis- 
cussions have  been  written  on  the  causes  of  laughter 
with  grown-up  persons.  The  subject  is  extremely  com- 
plex. Something  incongruous  or  unaccountable,  excit- 
ing surprise  and  some  sense  of  superiority  in  the  laugher^., 
who  must"be  in  a  hapj)y  f  rame  of  mind,  seems  to  be  the 
commbnesl'cause.*  The  circumstances  must  not  be  of 
alnomenfousTiafure:  no  poor  man  would  laugh  or  smile  , 
on  suddenly  hearing  that  a  large  fortune  had  been  be- 
queathed to  him.  If  the  mind  is  strongly  excited  by 
pleasurable  feelings,  and  any  little  unexpected  event  or 
thought  occurs,  then,  as  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer  remarks,^ 
*^  a  large  amount  of  nervous  energy^jnstead  of  b^iag 
^attowed  £o°^xpend  itself  in  producing  an  equivalent^ 
"amount  of  the  new^thqughts  and  emotion  which  were 
~nascMI^'is_sudd^nly_checked  in  its  flow."  ..."  The- 
excess  must  discharge  itself  in  some  other  direction,  and 
there  results  an  efflux  through  the  motor  nerves  to  vari- 
bus  classes  of  the  nfuscles,  producing  the  hall-conytlj- 
sive  actions  we  term  laughter."  An  observation,  bear- 
ing orPthis  point,  was  made  by  a  correspondent  during 
the  recent  siege  of  Paris,  namely,  that  the  German  sol- 
diers, after  strong  excitement  from  exposure  to  extreme 


*  Mr.  Bain  ('  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,'  1865,  p.  247) 
has  a  long  and  interesting-  discussion  on  the  Ludicrons. 
The  quotation  above  given  about  the  laughter  of  the 
gods  is  taken  from  this  work.  See,  also,  Mandeville, 
'The  Fable  of  the  Bees,'  vol.  ii.  p.  168. 

^  '  The  Physiology  of  Laughter,'  Essays,  Second  Series, 
1863,  p.  114. 


Chap.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  199 

danger,  were  particularly  apt  to  burst  out  into  loud 
laughter  at  the  smallest  joke.  So  again  when  young 
children  are  just  beginning  to  cry,  an  unexpected  event 
will  sometimes  suddenly  turn  their  crying  into  laughter, 
which  apparently  serves  equally  well  to  expend  their 
superfluous  nervous  energy. 

The  imagination  is  sometimes  said  to  be  tickled  by  a 
ludicrous  idea;  and  this  so-called  tickling  of  the  mind 
is  curiously  analogous  with  that  of  the  body.  Every  one 
knows  how  immoderately  children  laugh,  and  how  their 
whole  bodies  are  convulsed  when  they  are  tickled.  The 
anthropoid  apes,  as  we  have  seen,  likewise  utter  a  re- 
iterated sound,  corresponding  with  our  laughter,  when 
they  are  tickled,  especially  under  the  armpits.  I  touched 
with  a  bit  of  paper  the  sole  of  the  foot  of  one  of  my 
infants,  when  only  seven  days  old,  and  it  was  suddenly 
jerked  away  and  the  toes  curled  about,  as  in  an  older 
child.  Such  movements,  as  well  as  laughter  from  being 
tickled,  are  manifestly  reflex  actioiiauand  this  is  Hke- 
'wise  shown  by  the  minute  unstriped  muscles,  which 
serve  to  erect  the  separate  hairs  on  the  body,  contract- 
ing near  a  tickled  surface.^  Yet  laughter  from  a  ludi- 
crous idea,  though  involuntary,  cannot  be  called  a  strict- 
ly reflex  action.  In  this  case,  and  in  that  of  laughter 
from  being  tickled,  the  mind  must  be  in  a  pleasurable 
condition;  a  young  child,  if  tickled  by  a  strange  man, 
would  scream  from  fear.  The  touch  must  be  light,  and 
an  idea  or  event,  to  be  ludicrous,  must  not  be  of  grave 
import.  The  parts  of  the  body  which  are  most  easily 
tickled  are  those  which  are  not  commonly  touched,  such 
as  the  armpits  or  between  the  toes,  or  parts  such  as  the 
soles  of  the  feet,  which  are  habitually  touched  by  a  broad 


'  J.  Lister  in  '  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Sci- 
ence,' 1853,  vol.  i.  p.  266. 


200  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY :  Chap.  VIII, 

surface;  but  the  surface  on  which  we  sit  offers  a  marked 
exception  to  this  rule.  According  to  Gratiolet,^  certain 
nerves  are  much  more  sensitive  to  tickhng  than  others. 
From  the  fact  that  a  child  can  hardly  tickle  itself,  or  in 
a  much  less  degree  than  when  tickled  by  another  person, 
it  seems  that  the  precise  point  to  be  touched  must  not 
be  known;  so  with  the  mind,  something  unexpected — a 
novel  or  incongruous  idea  which  breaks  through  an 
habituaT  train  of  thought— appears  to  be^  strong  ele- 
ment in  the  ludicrous. 

The  sound  of  laughter  is  produced  by  a  deep  inspira- 
tion followed  by  short,  interrupted,  spasmodic  contrac- 
tions of  the  chest,  and  especially  of  the  diaphragm.^ 
Hence  we  hear  of  "  laughter  holding  both  his  sides.'' 
From  the  shaldng  of  the  body,  the  head  nods  to  and  fro. 
The  lower  jaw  often  quivers  up  and  down,  as  is  likewise 
the  case  with  some  species  of  baboons,  when  they  are 
much  pleaeed. 

During  laughter  the  mouth  is  opened  more  or  less 
widely,  with  the  corners  drawn  much  backwards,  as 
well  as  a  little  upwards;  and  the  upper  lip  is  somewhat 
raised.  The  drawing  back  of  the  corners  is  best  seen 
in  moderate  laughter,  and  especially  in  a  broad  smile — 
the  latter  epithet  showing  how  the  mouth  is  widened. 
In  the  accompanying  figs.  1-3,  Plate  III.,  different 
degrees  of  moderate  laughter  and  smiling  have  been 
photographed.  The  figure  of  the  little  girl,  with  the 
hat,  is  by  Dr.  Wallich,  and  the  expression  was  a  genuine 
one;  the  other  two  are  by  Mr.  Rejlander.  Dr.  Duchenne 
repeatedly  insists  *  that,  under  the  emotion  of  joy,  the 


^  ♦  De  la  Physionomie,'  p.  186. 

«  Sir  C.  Befl  (Anat.  of  Expression,  p.  147)  makes  some 
remarks  on  the  movement  of  the  diaphragm  during 
laughter. 

•  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,*  Album, 
Legende  vi. 


Chap.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  201 

mouth  is  acted  on  exclusively  by  the  great  zygomatic 
muscles,  which  serve  to  draw  the  corners  backwards  and 
upwards;  but  judging  from  the  manner  in  which  the 
upper  teeth  are  always  exposed  during  laughter  and 
broad  smiling,  as  well  as  from  my  own  sensations,  I  can- 
not doubt  that  some  of  the  muscles  running  to  the  upper 
lip  are  likewise  brought  into  moderate  action.  The 
upper  and  lower  orbicular  muscles  of  the  eyes  are  at  the 
same  time  more  or  less  contracted;  and  there  is  an  inti- 
mate connection,  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on  weep- 
ing, between  the  orbiculars,  especially  the  lower  ones, 
and  some  of  the  muscles  running  to  the  upper  lip. 
Henle  remarks  ^^  on  this  head,  that  when  a  man  closely 
shuts  one  eye  he  cannot  avoid  retracting  the  upper  lip 
on  the  same  side;  conversely,  if  any  one  will  place  his 
finger  on  his  lower  eyelid,  and  then  uncover  his  upper 
incisors  as  much  as  possible,  he  will  feel,  as  his  upper 
lip  is  drawn  strongly  upwards,  that  the  muscles  of  the 
lower  eyelid  contract.  In  Henle's  drawing,  given  in 
woodcut,  fig.  2,  the  musculus  malaris  (H)  which  runs 
to  the  upper  lip  may  be  seen  to  form  an  almost  integral 
part  of  the  lower  orbicular  muscle. 

Dr.  Duchenne  has  given  a  large  photograph  of  an  old 
man  (reduced  on  Plate  III.  fig  4),  in  his  usual  passive 
condition,  and  another  of  the  same  man  (fig.  5),  nat- 
urally smiling.  The  latter  was  instantly  recognized  by 
every  one  to  whom  it  was  shown  as  true  to  nature.  He 
has  also  given,  as  an  example  of  an  unnatural  or  false 
smile,  another  photograph  (fig.  6)  of  the  same  old  man, 
with  the  corners  of  his  mouth  strongly  retracted  by  the 
galvanization  of  the  great  zygomatic  muscles.  That 
the  expression  is  not  natural  is  clear,  for  I  showed  this 


Handbuch   der    System.    Anat.    des    Menschen,    1858, 
s.  144.    See  my  woodcut  (H.  fig.  2). 
14 


EXPRESSION  OF  JOY:  Chap.  VIIL 

photograpli  to  twenty-four  persons,  of  whom  three  could 
not  in  the  least  tell  what  was  meant,  whilst  the  others, 
though  they  perceived  that  the  expression  was  of  the 
nature  of  a  smile,  answered  in  such  words  as  "  a  wicked 
joke,"  "  trying  to  laugh,"  "  grinning  laughter,"  "  half- 
amazed  laughter,"  &c.  Dr.  Duchenne  attributes  the 
falseness  of  the  expression  altogether  to  the  orbicular 
muscles  of  the  lower  eyelids  not  being  sufficiently  con- 
tracted; for  he  justly  lays  great  stress  on  their  contrac- 
tion in  the  expression  of  joy.  Xo  doubt  there  is  much 
truth  in  this  view,  but  not,  as  it  appears  to  me,  the  whole 
truth.  The  contraction  of  the  lower  orbiculars  is  always 
accompanied,  as  we  have  seen,  by  the  drawing  up  of  the 
upper  lip.  Had  the  upper  lip,  in  fig.  6,  been  thus  acted 
on  to  a  slight  extent,  its  curvature  would  have  been  less 
rigid,  the  naso-labial  furrow  would  have  been  slightly 
different,  and  the  whole  expression  would,  as  I  believe, 
have  been  more  natural,  independently  of  the  more  con- 
spicuous effect  from  the  stronger  contraction  of  the 
lower  eyelids.  The  corrugator  muscle,  moreover,  in  fig. 
6,  is  too  much  contracted,  causing  a  frown;  and  this 
muscle  never  acts  under  the  influence  of  joy  except  dur- 
ing strongly  pronounced  or  violent  laughter. 

By  the  drawing  backwards  and  upwards  of  the  cor- 
ners of  the  mouth,  through  the  contraction  of  the  great 
zygomatic  muscles,  and  by  the  raising  of  the  upper  lip, 
the  cheeks  are  drawn  upwards.  Wrinkles  are  thus 
formed  under  the  eyes,  and,  with  old  people,  at  their 
outer  ensls;  and  these  are  highly  characteristic  of  laugh- 
ter or  smiling.  As  a  gentle  smile  increases  into  a  strong 
one,  or  into  a  laugh,  every  one  may  feel  and  see,  if  he  will 
attend  to  his  own  sensations  and  look  at  himself  in  a 
mirror,  that  as  the  upper  lip  is  drawn  up  and  the  lower 
orbiculars  contract,  the  wrinkles  in  the  lower  eyelids 
and  those  beneath  the  eyes  are  much  strengthened  or 


Chap.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  203 

increased.  At  the  same  time,  as  I  have  repeatedly  ob- 
served, the  eyebrows  are  slightly  lowered,  which  shows 
that  the  upper  as  well  as  the  lower  orbiculars  contract 
at  least  to  some  degree,  though  this  passes  unperceived, 
as  far  as  our  sensations  are  concerned.  If  the  original 
photograph  of  the  old  man,  with  his  countenance  in  its 
usual  placid  state  (fig.  4),  be  compared  with  that  (fig.  5) 
in  which  he  is  naturally  smiling,  it  may  be  seen  that  the 
eyebrows  in  the  latter  are  a  little  lowered.  I  presume 
that  this  is  owing  to  the  upper  orbiculars  being  impelled, 
through  the  force  of  long-associated  habit,  to  act  to  a 
certain  extent  in  concert  with  the  lower  orbiculars, 
which  themselves  contract  in  connection  with  the  draw- 
ing up  of  the  upper  lip. 

The  tendency  in  the  zygomatic  muscles  to  contract 
under  pleasurable  emotions  is  shown  by  a  curious  fact, 
communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  Browne,  with  respect  to 
patients  suffering  homgefiernl  parali/sis  of  the  msane.^^ 
"  In  this  malady  there  is  almost  invariably  optimism — 
delusions  as  to  wealth,  rank,  grandeur — insane  joyous- 
ness,  benevolence,  and  profusion,  while  its  very  earliest 
physical  sjTnptom  is  trembling  at  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  and  at  the  outer  corners  of  the  eyes.  This  is  a 
well-recognized  fact.  Constant  tremulous  agitation  of 
the  inferior  palpebral  and  great  zygomatic  muscles  is 
pathognomic  of  the  earlier  stages  of  general  paralysis. 
The  countenance  has  a  pleased  and  benevolent  expres- 
sion. As  the  disease  advances  other  muscles  become 
involved,  but  until  complete  fatuity  is  reached,  the  pre- 
vailing expression  is  that  of  feeble  benevolence.'' 

As  in  laughing  and  broadly  smihng  the  cheeks  and 
upper  lip  are  much  raised,  the  nose  appears  to  be  short- 

"  See,  also,  remarks  to  the  same  effect  by  Dr.  J.  Crich- 
ton  Browne  in  '  Journal  of  Mental  Science,'  April,  1871, 
p.  149. 


204  EXPRESSION  OF  JOY :  Chap.  VIIL 

ened,  and  the  skin  on  the  bridge  becomes  finely  wrin- 
kled in  transverse  lines,  with  other  oblique  longitudinal 
lines  on  the  sides.  The  upper  front  teeth  are  commonly 
exposed.  A  well-marked  naso-labial  fold  is  formed, 
which  runs  from  the  wing  of  each  nostril  to  the  corner 
of  the  mouth;  and  this  fold  is  often  double  in  old  per- 
sons. 

A  bright  and  sparkling  eye  is  as  characteristic  of  a 
pleased  or  amused  state  of  mind,  as  is  the  retraction 
of  the  corners  of  the  mouth  and  upper  lip  with  the 
wrinkles  thus  produced.  Even  the  eyes  of  microcepha- 
lous idiots,  who  are  so  degraded  that  they  never  learn 
to  speak,  brighten  slightly  when  they  are  pleased. ^^ 
Under  extreme  laughter  the  eyes  are  too  much  suffused 
w4th  tears  to  sparkle;  but  the  moisture  squeezed  out  of 
the  glands  during  moderate  laughter  or  smiling  may 
aid  in  giving  them  lustre;  though  this  must  be  of  alto- 
gether subordinate  importance,  as  they  become  dull  from 
grief,  though  they  are  then  often  moist.  Their  bright- 
ness seems  to  be  chiefly  due  to  their  tenseness,^*  owing 
to  the  contraction  of  the  orbicular  muscles  and  to  the 
pressure  of  the  raised  cheeks.  But,  according  to  Dr. 
Piderit,  who  has  discussed  this  point  more  fully  than 
any  other  writer,^*  the  tenseness  may  be  largely  attrib- 
uted to  the  eyeballs  becoming  filled  with  blood  and  other 
fluids,  from  the  acceleration  of  the  circulation,  conse- 
quent on  the  excitement  of  pleasure.  He  remarks  on  the 
contrast  in  the  appearance  of  the  eyes  of  a  hectic  pa- 
tient with  a  rapid  circulation,  and  of  a  man  suffering 
from  cholera  with  almost  all  the  fluids  of  his  body 
drained  from  him.  Any  cause  which  lowers  the  circula- 
tion deadens  the  eye.    I  remember  seeing  a  man  utterly 


"  C.  Vogi:,  '  Memoire  sur  les  Microcephales.'  1867,  p.  21. 
"  Sir  C.  Bell.  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  133. 
"  '  Mimik  und  Physiog-'nomik,'  1867,  s.  63--67. 


Chap.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  205 

prostrated  by  prolonged  and  severe  exertion  during  a 
very  hot  day,  and  a  bystander  compared  his  eyes  to  those 
of  a  boiled  codfish. 

To  return  to  the  sounds  produced  during  laughter. 
"We  can  see  in  a  vague  manner  how  the  utterance  of 
sounds  of  some  kind  would  naturally  become  associated 
with  a  pleasurable  state  of  mind;  for  throughout  a  large 
part  of  the  animal  kingdom  vocal  or  instrumental  sounds 
are  employed  either  as  a  call  or  as  a  charm  by  one  sex 
for  the  other.  They  are  also  employed  as  the  means  for 
a  joyful  meeting  between  the  parents  and  their  offspring, 
and  between  the  attached  members  of  the  same  social 
community.  But  why  the  sounds  which  man  utters 
when  he  is  pleased  have  the  peculiar  reiterated  charac- 
ter of  laughter  we  do  not  know.  Nevertheless  we  can 
see  that  they  would  naturally  be  as  different  as  possible 
from  the  screams  or  cries  of  distress;  and  as  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  latter,  the  expirations  are  prolonged  and 
continuous,  with  the  inspirations  short  and  interrupted, 
so  it  might  perhaps  have  been  expected  with  the  sounds 
uttered  from  joy,  that  the  expirations  would  have  been 
short  and  broken  with  the  inspirations  prolonged;  and 
this  is  the  case. 

It  is  an  equally  obscure  point  why  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  are  retracted  and  the  upper  lip  raised  during 
ordinary  laughter.  The  mouth  must  not  be  opened  to 
its  utmost  extent,  for  when  this  occurs  during  a  parox- 
ysm of  excessive  laughter  hardly  any  sound  is  emitted; 
or  it  changes  its  tone  and  seems  to  come  from  deep  down 
in  the  throat.  The  respiratory  muscles,  and  even  those 
of  the  limbs,  are  at  the  same  time  thrown  into  rapid 
vibratory  movements.  The  lower  jaw  often  partakes  of 
this  movement,  and  this  would  tend  to  prevent  the 
mouth  from  being  widely  opened.  But  as  a  full  volume 
of  sound  has  to  be  poured  forth,  the  orifice  of  the  mouth 


EXPRESSION  OF  JOY:  Chap.  VIIL 

must  be  large;  and  it  is  perhaps  to  gain  this  end  that 
the  corners  are  retracted  and  the  upper  lip  raised.  Al- 
though we  can  hardly  account  for  the  shape  of  the  mouth 
during  laughter,  which  leads  to  wrinkles  being  formed 
beneath  the  eyes,  nor  for  the  peculiar  reiterated  sound 
of  laughter,  nor  for  the  quivering  of  the  jaws,  neverthe- 
less we  may  infer  that  all  these  effects  are  due  to  some 
common  cause.  For  they  are  all  characteristic  and  ex- 
pressive of  a  pleased  state  of  mind  in  various  kinds  of 
monkeys. 

A  graduated  series  can  be  followed  from  violent  to 
moderate  laughter,  to  a  broad  smile,  to  a  gentle  smile, 
and  to  the  expression  of  mere  cheerfulness.  During 
excessive  laughter  the  whole  body  is  often  thrown  back- 
ward and  shakes,  or  is  almost  convulsed;  the  respira- 
tion is  much  disturbed;  the  head  and  face  become  gorged 
with  blood,  with  the  veins  distended;  and  the  orbicular 
muscles  are  spasmodically  contracted  in  order  to  pro- 
tect the  eyes.  Tears  are  freely  shed.  Hence,  as  for- 
merly remarked,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  point  out  any 
difference  between  the  tear-stained  face  of  a  person  after 
a  paroxysm  of  excessive  laughter  and  after  a  bitter  cry- 
ing-fit.^^ It  is  probably  due  to  the  close  similarity  of  the 
spasmodic  movements  caused  by  these  widely  different 
emotions  that  hysteric  patients  alternately  cry  and  laugh 
with  violence,  and  that  young  children  sometimes  pass 
suddenly  from  the  one  to  the  other  state.  Mr.  Swin- 
hoe  informs  me  that  he  has  often  seen  the  Chinese,  when 
suffering  from  deep  grief,  burst  out  into  hysterical  fits 
of  laughter. 

"  Sir  J.  Reynolds  remarks  ('Discourses,'  xii.  p.  100), 
"  It  is  curious  to  observe,  and  it  is  certainly  true,  that  the 
extremes  of  contrary  passions  are,  with  very  little  varia- 
tion, expressed  by  the  same  action."  He  gives  as  an  in- 
stance the  frantic  joy  of  a  Bacchante  and  the  grief  of  a 
Mary  Magdalen. 


Chap.  VIII.  LAUGHTER.  207 

I  was  anxious  to  know  whether  tears  are  freely  shed 
during  excessive  laughter  by  most  of  the  races  of  men, 
and  I  hear  from  my  correspondents  that  this  is  the  case. 
One  instance  was  observed  with  the  Hindoos,  and  they 
themselves  said  that  it  often  occurred.  So  it  is  wdth 
the  Chinese.  The  women  of  a  wild  tribe  of  Malays  in 
the  Malacca  peninsula,  sometimes  shed  tears  when  they 
laugh  heartily,  though  this  seldom  occurs.  With  the 
Dyaks  of  Borneo  it  must  frequently  be  the  case,  at  least 
with  the  women,  for  I  hear  from  the  Rajah  C.  Brooke 
that  it  is  a  common  expression  with  them  to  say  "  we 
nearly  made  tears  from  laughter."  The  aborigines  of 
Australia  express  their  emotions  freely,  and  they  are 
described  by  my  correspondents  as  jumping  about  and 
clapping  their  hands  for  joy,  and  as  often  roaring  with 
laughter.  Xo  less  than  four  observers  have  seen  their 
eyes  freely  watering  on  such  occasions;  and  in  one  in- 
stance the  tears  rolled  down  their  cheeks.  Mr.  Bulmer, 
a  missionary  in  a  remote  part  of  Victoria,  remarks,  "  that 
they  have  a  keen  sense  of  the  ridiculous;  they  are  ex- 
cellent mimics,  and  when  one  of  them  is  able  to  imitate 
the  peculiarities  of  some  absent  member  of  the  tribe,  it 
is  very  common  to  hear  all  in  the  camp  convulsed  with 
laughter."  With  Europeans  hardly  anything  excites 
laughter  so  easily  as  m^imicry;  and  it  is  rather  curious 
to  find  the  same  fact  with  the  savages  of  Australia,  who 
constitute  one  of  the  most  distinct  races  in  the  world. 

In  Southern  Africa  with  two  tribes  of  Kafirs,  espe- 
cially with  the  women,  their  eyes  often  fill  with  tears 
during  laughter.  Gaika,  the  brother  of  the  chief  San- 
dilli,  answers  my  query  on  this  head,  with  the  words, 
*'  Yes,  that  is  their  common  practice."  Sir  Andrew 
Smith  has  seen  the  painted  face  of  a  Hottentot  woman 
fill  furrowed  with  tears  after  a  fit  of  laughter.  In  North- 
ern Africa,  with  the  Abyssinians,  tears  are  secreted  under 


208  EXPRESSION   OF  JOY:  Chap.  Vllt 

the  same  circumstances.  Lastly,  in  North  America,  the 
same  fact  has  been  observed  in  a  remarkably  savage  and 
isolated  tribe,  but  chiefly  with  the  women;  in  another 
tribe  it  was  observed  only  on  a  single  occasion. 

Excessive  laughter,  as  before  remarked,  graduates 
into  moderate  laughter.  In  this  latter  case  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes  are  much  less  contracted,  and  there  is 
little  or  no  frowning.  Between  a  gentle  laugh  and  a 
broad  smile  there  is  hardly  any  difference,  excepting 
that  in  smiling  no  reiterated  sound  is  uttered,  though  a 
single  rather  strong  expiration,  or  slight  noise — a  rudi- 
ment of  a  laugh — may  often  be  heard  at  the  commence- 
ment of  a  smile.  On  a  moderately  smiling  countenance 
the  contraction  of  the  upper  orbicular  muscles  can  still 
just  be  traced  by  a  slight  lowering  of  the  eyebrows.  The 
contraction  of  the  lower  orbicular  and  palpebral  mus- 
cles is  much  plainer,  and  is  shown  by  the  wrinkling  of 
the  lower  eyelids  and  of  the  skin  beneath  them,  together 
with  a  slight  drawing  up  of  the  upper  lip.  From  the 
broadest  smile  we  pass  by  the  finest  steps  into  the  gen- 
tlest one.  In  this  latter  case  the  features  are  moved  in 
a  much  less  degree,  and  much  more  slowly,  and  the 
mouth  is  kept  closed.  The  curvature  of  the  naso-labial 
furrow  is  also  slightly  different  in  the  two  cases.  ^Ye 
thus  see  that  no  abrupt  line  of  demarcation  can  be 
drawn  between  the  movement  of  the  features  during  the 
most  violent  laughter  and  a  very  faint  smile. ^® 

A  smile,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  stage 
in  the  development  of  a  laugh.  But  a  different  and 
more  probable  view  may  be  suggested;  namely,  that 
the  habit  of  uttering  loud  reiterated  sounds  froinXsense 
of  pleasure,  first  led  to  the  retraction  of  the  corners  of 
!He~mouth  and  of  the  upper  lip,  and  to  the  contractioriT 

"  Dr.  Piderit  has  come  to  the  same  conclusion,  ibid.  s.  99. 


Chap.  VHI.  LAUGHTER.  209 

of  the  orbicular  muscles;  and  that  now,  through  associa- 
tion  and  long-continued  habit^  the  same  muscles  are 
^rought^into  slight  play  whenever  any  cause  excites^in^ 
us  a  feeling  which,  if  stronger,  would  have  led  to  laugh- 
ter; andr theresult  is  a  smile. 

Whether  we  look  at  laughter  as  the  full  development 
of  a  smile,  or,  as  is  more  probable,  at  a  gentle  smile  as 
the  last  trace  of  a  habit,  firmly  fixed  during  many  gen- 
erations, of  laughing  whenever  we  are  joyful,  we  can 
follow  in  our  infants  the  gradual  passage  of  the  one  into 
the  other.  It  is  well  known  to  those  who  have  the  charge 
of  young  infants,  that  it  is  difficult  to  feel  sure  when  cer- 
tain movements  about  their  mouths  are  really  expressive; 
that  is,  when  they  really  smile.  Hence  I  carefully 
watched  my  own  infants.  One  of  them  at  the  age  of 
forty-five  days,  and  being  at  the  time  in  a  happy  frame 
of  mind,  smiled;  that  is,  the  corners  of  the  mouth  were 
retracted,  and  simultaneously  the  eyes  became  decidedly 
bright.  I  observed  the  same  thing  on  the  following 
day;  but  on  the  third  day  the  child  was  not  quite  well 
and  there  was  no  trace  of  a  smile,  and  this  renders  it 
probable  that  the  previous  smiles  were  real.  Eight  days 
subsequently  and  during  the  next  succeeding  week,  it 
was  remarkable  how  his  eyes  brightened  whenever  he 
smiled,  and  his  nose  became  at  the  same  time  trans- 
versely wrinkled.  This  was  now  accompanied  by  a  little 
bleating  noise,  which  perhaps  represented  a  laugh.  At 
the  age  of  113  days  these  little  noises,  which  were  al- 
ways made  during  expiration,  assumed  a  slightly  differ- 
ent character,  and  were  more  broken  or  interrupted,  as 
in  sobbing;  and  this  was  certainly  incipient  laughter. 
The  change  in  tone  seemed  to  me  at  the  time  to  be  con- 
nected with  the  greater  lateral  extension  of  the  mouth 
as  the  smiles  became  broader. 

In  a  second  infant  the  first  real  smile  was  observed 


210  EXPRESSION  OF  HIGH  SPIRITS.  Chap.  VIIL 

at  about  the  same  age,  viz.  forty-five  days;  and  in  a 
third,  at  a  somewhat  earlier  age.  The  second  infant, 
when  sixty-five  days  old,  smiled  much  more  broadly  and 
plainly  than  did  the  one  first  mentioned  at  the  same 
age;  and  even  at  this  early  age  uttered  noises  very  like 
laughter.  In  this  gradual  acquirement,  by  infants,  of 
the  habit  of  laughing,  we  have  a  case  in  some  degree 
analogous  to  that  of  weeping.  As  practice  is  requisite 
with  the  ordinary  movements  of  the  body,  such  as  walk- 
ing, so  it  seems  to  be  with  laughing  and  weeping.  The 
art  of  screaming,  on  the  other  hand,  from  being  of  serv- 
ice to  infants,  has  become  finely  developed  from  the 
earliest  days. 

High  spirits^  cheerfulness. — A  man  in  high  spirits, 
though  he  may  not  actually  smile,  commonly  exhibits 
some  tendency  to  the  retraction  of  the  corners  of  his 
mouth.  From  the  excitement  of  pleasure,  the  circula- 
tion becomes  more  rapid;  the  eyes  are  bright,  and  the 
colour  of  the  face  rises.  The  brain,  being  stimulated  by 
the  increased  flow  of  blood,  reacts  on  the  mental  powers; 
lively  ideas  pass  still  more  rapidly  through  the  mind, 
and  the  affections  are  warmed.  I  heard  a  child,  a  little 
under  four  years  old,  when  asked  what  was  meant  by 
being  in  good  spirits,  answer,  "  It  is  laughing,  talking, 
and  kissing.'^  It  would  be  difficult  to  give  a  truer  and 
more  practical  definition.  A  man  in  this  state  holds  his 
body  erect,  his  head  upright,  and  his  eyes  open.  There 
is  no  drooping  of  the  features,  and  no  contraction  of  the 
eyebrows.  On  the  contrary,  the  frontal  muscle,  as  Mo- 
reau  observes,^^  tends  to  contract  slightly;  and  this 
smooths  the  brow,  removes  every  trace  of  a  frown,  arches 

"  *  La  Physionomie,'  par  G.  Lavater,  edit,  of  1820,  vol. 
iv.  p.  224.  See,  also.  Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,' 
p.  172,  for  the  quotation  given  belove. 


Chap.  VIII.  EXPRESSION  OF  HIGH  SPIRITS.  211 

the  eyebrows  a  little,  and  raises  the  eyelids.  Hence  the 
Latin  phrase,  exporrigere  frontern — to  unwrinkle  the 
brow — means,  to  be  cheerful  or  merry.  The  whole  ex- 
pression of  a  man  in  good  spirits  is  exactly  the  opposite 
of  that  of  one  suffering  from  sorrow.  According  to  Sir 
C.  Bell,  "  In  all  the  exhilarating  emotions  the  eyebrows, 
eyelids,  the  nostrils,  and  the  angles  of  the  mouth  are 
raised.  In  the  depressing  passions  it  is  the  reverse." 
Under  the  influence  of  the  latter  the  brow  is  heavy,  the 
eyelids,  cheeks,  mouth,  and  whole  head  droop;  the  eyes 
are  dull;  the  countenance  pallid,  and  the  respiration 
slow.  In  joy  the  face  expands,  in  grief  it  lengthens. 
Whether  the  principle  of  antithesis  has  here  come  into 
play  in  producing  these  opposite  expressions,  in  aid  of 
the  direct  causes  which  have  been  specified  and  which 
are  sufficiently  plain,  I  will  not  pretend  to  say. 

With  all  the  races  of  man  the  expression  of  good 
spirit  appears  to  be  the  same,  and  is  easily  recognized. 
My  informants,  from  various  parts  of  the  Old  and  New 
Worlds,  answer  in  the  affirmative  to  my  queries  on  this 
head,  and  they  give  some  particulars  with  respect  to 
Hindoos,  Malays,  and  New  Zealanders.  The  brightness 
of  the  eyes  of  the  Australians  has  struck  four  observers, 
and  the  same  fact  has  been  noticed  with  Hindoos,  New 
Zealanders,  and  the  Dyaks  of  Borneo. 

Savages  sometimes  express  their  satisfaction  not  only 
by  smiling,  but  by  gestures  derived  from  the  pleasure 
of  eating.  Thus  Mr.  Wedgwood  ^*  quotes  Petherick 
that  the  negroes  on  the  Upper  Nile  began  a  general  rub- 
bing of  their  bellies  when  he  displayed  his  beads;  and 
Leichhardt  says  that  the  Australians  smacked  and  clacked 
their  mouths  at  the  sight  of  his  horses  and  bullocks,  and 


"  A  '  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,'  2nd  edit.  1872, 
Introduction,  p.  xlir. 


212  EXPRESSION  OF  LOVE,  ETC.       Chap.  VIIL 

more  especially  of  his  kangaroo  dogs.  The  Greenland- 
ers,  "  when  they  affirm  anything  with  pleasure,  suck 
down  air  with  a  certain  sound; "  ^®  and  this  may  be  an 
imitation  of  the  act  of  swallowing  savoury  food. 

Laughter  is  suppressed  by  the  firm  contraction  of  the 
orbicular  muscles  of  the  mouth,  which  prevents  the  great 
zygomatic  and  other  muscles  from  drawing  the  lips 
backwards  and  upwards.  The  lower  lip  is  also  some- 
times held  by  the  teeth,  and  this  gives  a  roguish  ex- 
pression to  the  face,  as  was  observed  with  the  blind  and 
deaf  Laura  Bridgman.^^  The  great  zygomatic  muscle 
is  sometimes  variable  in  its  course,  and  I  have  seen  a 
young  woman  in  whom  the  depressores  anguli  oris  were 
brought  into  strong  action  in  suppressing  a  smile;  but 
this  by  no  means  gave  to  her  countenance  a  melancholy 
expression,  owing  to  the  brightness  of  her  eyes. 

Laughter  is  frequently  employed  in  a  forced  manner 
to  conceal  or  mask  some  other  state  of  mind,  even  anger. 
We  often  see  persons  laughing  in  order  to  conceal  their 
shame  or  shyness.  When  a  person  purses  up  his  mouth, 
as  if  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  a  smile,  though  there 
is  nothing  to  excite  one,  or  notliing  to  prevent  its  free 
indulgence,  an  affected,  solemn,  or  pedantic  expression 
is  given;  but  of  such  hybrid  expressions  nothing  more 
need  here  be  said.  In  the  case  of  derision,  a  real  or  pre- 
tended smile  or  laugh  is  often  blended  with  the  expres- 
sion proper  to  contempt,  and  this  may  pass  into  angry 
contempt  or  scorn.  In  such  cases  the  meaning  of  the 
laugh  or  smile  is  to  show  the  offending  person  that  he 
excites  only  amusement. 

Love^  tender  feelings^  i^c. — Although  the  emotion  of 


"  Crantz,  quoted  by  Tylor,  '  Primitive  Culture,'  1871, 
vol.  i.  p.  169. 

*°  F.  Lieber,  '  Smithsonian  Contributions,'  1851,  vol. 
ii.  p.  7. 


Chap.viil     expression  of  love,  etc.  213 

love,  for  instance  that  of  a  mother  for  her  infant,  is  one 
of  the  strongest  of  which  the  mind  is  capable,  it  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  any  proper  or  peculiar  means  of 
expression;  and  this  is  intelligible,  as  it  has  not  habit- 
ually led  to  any  special  line  of  action.  No  doubt,  as 
affection  is  a  pleasurable  sensation,  it  generally  causes  a 
gentle  smile  and  some  brightening  of  the  eyes.  A 
strong  desire  to  touch  the  beloved  person  is  commonly 
felt;  and  love  is  expressed  by  this  means  more  plainly 
than  by  any  other.^^  Hence  we  long  to  clasp  in  our 
arms  those  whom  we  tenderly  love.  We  probably  owe 
this  desire  to  inherited  habit,  in  association  with  the 
nursing  and  tending  of  our  children,  and  with  the  mu- 
tual caresses  of  lovers. 

With  the  lower  animals  we  see  the  same  principle  of 
pleasure  derived  from  contact  in  association  with  love. 
Dogs  and  cats  manifestly  take  pleasure  in  rubbing  against 
their  masters  and  mistresses,  and  in  being  rubbed  or 
patted  by  them.  Many  kinds  of  monkeys,  as  I  am  as- 
sured by  the  keepers  in  the  Zoological  Gardens,  delight 
in  fondling  and  being  fondled  by  each  other,  and  by 
persons  to  whom  they  are  attached.  Mr.  Bartlett  has 
described  to  me  the  behaviour  of  two  chimpanzees,  rather 
older  animals  than  those  generally  imported  into  this 
country,  when  they  were  first  brought  together.  They 
sat  opposite,  touching  each  other  with  their  much  pro- 
truded lips;  and  the  one  put  his  hand  on  the  shoulder  of 
the  other.  They  then  mutually  folded  each  other  in 
their  arms.  Afterwards  they  stood  up,  each  with  one 
arm  on  the  shoulder  of  the  other,  lifted  up  their  heads, 
opened  their  mouths,  and  yelled  with  delight. 


"  Mr.  Bain  remarks  ('  Mental  and  Moral  Science,'  1868, 
p.  239),  "  Tenderness  is  a  pleasurable  emotion,  variously 
stimulated,  whose  effort  is  to  draw  human  beings  into 
mutual  embrace." 


214  EXPRESSION  OF  LOVE,  ETC.       Chap.  VIII. 

We  Europeans  are  so  accustomed  to  kissing  as  a 
mark  of  affection,  that  it  might  be  thought  to  be  innate 
in  mankind;  but  this  is  not  the  case.  Steele  was  mis- 
taken when  he  said  "  Nature  was  its  author,  and  it  began 
with  the  first  courtship."  Jemmy  Button,  the  Fuegian, 
told  me  that  this  practice  was  unknown  in  his  land.  It 
is  equally  unknown  with  the  New  Zealanders,  Tahitians, 
Papuans,  Australians,  Somals  of  Africa,  and  the  Esqui- 
maux.-^ But  it  is  60  far  innate  or  natural  that  it  appar- 
ently depends  on  pleasure  from  close  contact  with  a  be- 
loved person;  and  it  is  replaced  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  by  the  rubbing  of  noses,  as  with  the  New  Zea- 
landers and  Laplanders,  by  the  rubbing  or  patting  of 
the  arms,  breasts,  or  stomachs,  or  by  one  man  striking 
his  own  face  with  the.  hands  or  feet  of  another.  Perhaps 
the  practice  of  blowing,  as  a  mark  of  affection,  on  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  body  may  depend  on  the  same  princi- 
ple.23 

The  feelings  which  are  called  tender  are  difficult  to 
analyse;  they  seem  to  be  compounded  of  affection,  joy, 
and  especially  of  sympathy.  These  feelings  are  in  them- 
selves of  a  pleasurable  nature,  excepting  when  pity  is 
too  deep,  or  horror  is  aroused,  as  in  hearing  of  a  tortured 
man  or  animal.  They  are  remarkable  under  our  present 
point  of  view  from  so  readily  exciting  the  secretion  of 
tears.  Many  a  father  and  son  have  wept  on  meeting  after 
a  long  separation,  especially  if  the  meeting  has  been  un- 
expected. No  doubt  extreme  joy  by  itself  tends  to  act 
on  the  lacrymal  glands;  but  on  such  occasions  as  the 
foregoing  vague  thoughts  of  the  grief  which  would  have 

^  Sir  J.  Lubbock,  '  Prehistoric  Times,'  2nd  edit.  1869, 
p.  552,  gives  full  authorities  for  these  statements.  The 
quotation  from  Steele  is  taken  from  this  work. 

^  See  a  full  acount,  with  references,  by  E.  B.  Tylor, 
*  Researches  into  the  Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit. 
1870,  p.  51. 


Chap.  VIII.      EXPRESSION  OF  LOVE,  ETC.  215 

been  felt  had  the  father  and  son  never  met,  will  prob- 
ably have  passed  through  their  minds;  and  grief  nat- 
urally leads  to  the  secretion  of  tears.  Thus  on  the  re- 
turn of  Ulysses: — 

"  Telemachus 
Kose,  and  clung  weeping"  round  his  father's  breast. 
There  the  pent  grief  rained  o'er  them,  yearning-  thus. 

*  ***** 

Thus  piteously  they  wailed  in  sore  unrest^ 
And  on  their  weepings  had  g-one  down  the  day, 
But  that  at  last  Telemachus  found  words  to  say." 
Worsley's  Translation  of  the  Odyssey, 

Book  xvi.  st.  27. 

So  again  when  Penelope  at  last  recognized  her  hus- 
band : — 

"  Then  from  her  eyelids  the  quick  tears  did  start 
And  she  ran  to  him  from  her  place,  and  threw 
Her  arms  about  his  neck,  and  a  warm  dew 
Of  kisses  poured  upon  him,  and  thus  spake:  " 

Book  xxiii.  st.  27. 

The  vivid  recollection  of  our  former  home,  or  of 
long-past  happy  days,  readily  causes  the  eyes  to  be  suf- 
fused with  tears;  but  here,  again,  the  thought  naturally 
occurs  that  these  days  will  never  return.  In  such  cases 
we  may  be  said  to  sympathize  with  ourselves  in  our  pres- 
ent, in  comparison  with  eur  former,  state.  Sympathy 
with  the  distresses  of  others,  even  with  the  imaginary 
distresses  of  a  heroine  in  a  pathetic  story,  for  whom  we 
feel  no  affection,  readily  excites  tears.  So  does  s}Tnpa- 
thy  with  the  happiness  of  others,  as  with  that  of  a  lover, 
at  last  successful  after  many  hard  trials  in  a  well-told 
tale. 

Sympathy  appears  to  constitute  a  separate  or  distinct 
emotion;  and  it  is  especially  apt  to  excite  the  lacrymal 
glands.  This  holds  good  whether  we  give  or  receive 
sympathy.  Every  one  must  have  noticed  how  readily 
children  burst  out  crying  if  we  pity  them  for  some  small 


216  EXPRESSION  OF  LOVE,  ETC.       Chap.  VIIL 

hurt.  With  the  melancholic  insane,  as  Dr.  Crichton 
B^o^me  informs  me,  a  kind  word  will  often  plunge  them 
into  unrestrained  weeping.  As  soon  as  we  express  our 
pity  for  the  grief  of  a  friend,  tears  often  come  into  our 
own  eyes.  The  feeling  of  sympathy  is  commonly  ex- 
plained by  assuming  that,  when  we  see  or  hear  of  suf- 
fering in  another,  the  idea  of  suffering  is  called  up  so  viv- 
idly in  our  own  minds  that  we  ourselves  suffer.  But  this 
explanation  is  hardly  sufficient^  for  it  does  not  account 
for  the  intimate  alliance  between  sympathy  and  affec- 
tion. We  undoubtedly  sympathize  far  more  deeply  with 
a  beloved  than  with  an  indifferent  person;  and  the 
sympathy  of  the  one  gives  us  far  more  relief  than  that 
of  the  other.  Yet  assuredly  we  can  sympathize  with 
those  for  whom  we  feel  no  affection. 

Why  suffering,  when  actually  experienced  by  our- 
selves, excites  weeping,  has  been  discussed  in  a  former 
chapter.  With  respect  to  joy,  its  natural  and  universal 
expression  is  laughter;  and  with  all  the  races  of  man 
loud  laughter  leads  to  the  secretion  of  tears  more  freely 
than  does  any  other  cause  excepting  distress.  The  suf- 
fusion of  the  eyes  with  tears,  which  undoubtedly  occurs 
under  great  Joy,  though  there  is  no  laughter,  can,  as  it 
seems  to  me,  be  explained  through  habit  and  associa- 
tion on  the  same  principles  as  the  effusion  of  tears  from 
grief,  although  there  is  no  screaming.  Nevertheless  it 
is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  sympathy  with  the  dis- 
tresses of  others  should  excite  tears  more  freely  than 
our  own  distress;  and  this  certainly  is  the  case.  Many 
a  man,  from  whose  eyes  no  suffering  of  his  own  could 
wring  a  tear,  has  shed  tears  at  the  sufferings  of  a  be- 
loved friend.  It  is  still  more  remarkable  that  sympathy 
with  the  happiness  or  good  fortune  of  those  whom  we 
tenderly  love  should  lead  to  the  same  result,  whilst  a 
similar  happiness  felt  by  ourselves  would  leave  our  eyes 


Chap.  VIII.       EXPRESSION   OF  DEVOTION.  217 

dry.  We  should,  however,  bear  in  mind  that  the  long- 
continued  habit  of  restraint  which  is  so  powerful  in 
checking  the  free  flow  of  tears  from  bodily  pain,  has  not 
been  brought  into  play  in  preventing  a  moderate  effu- 
sion of  tears  in  sympathy  with  the  sufferings  or  happi- 
ness of  others. 

Music  has  a  wonderful  power,  as  I  have  elsewhere 
attempted  to  show,^'*  of  recalling  in  a  vague  and  in- 
definite manner,  those  strong  emotions  which  were  felt 
during  long-past  ages,  when,  as  is  probable,  our  early 
progenitors  courted  each  other  by  the  aid  of  vocal  tones. 
And  as  several  of  our  strongest  emotions — grief,  great 
joy,  love,  and  sympathy — lead  to  the  free  secretion  of 
tears,  it  is  not  surprising  that  music  should  be  apt  to 
cause  our  eyes  to  become  suffused  with  tears,  especially 
when  we  are  already  softened  by  any  of  the  tenderer 
feelings.  Music  often  produces  another  peculiar  effect. 
We  know  that  every  strong  sensation,  emotion,  or  ex- 
citement— extreme  pain,  rage,  terror,  joy,  or  the  pas- 
sion of  love — all  have  a  special  tendency  to  cause  the 
muscles  to  tremble;  and  the  thrill  or  slight  shiver  which 
runs  down  the  backbone  and  limbs  of  many  persons 
when  they  are  powerfully  affected  by  music,  seems  to 
bear  the  same  relation  to  the  above  trembling  of  the 
body,  as  a  slight  suffusion  of  tears  from  the  power  of 
music  does  to  weeping  from  any  strong  and  real  emo- 
tion. 

Devotion. — As  devotion  is,  in  some  degree,  related  to 
affection,  though  mainly  consisting  of  reverence,  often 
combined  with  fear,  the  expression  of  this  state  of  mind 
may  here  be  briefly  noticed.  With  some  sects,  both 
past  and  present,  religion  and  love  have  been  strangely 
combined;  and  it  has  even  been  maintained,  lamentable 


"  '  The  Descent  of  Man,'  vol.  ii.  p.  336, 
15 


218  EXPRESSION  OF  DEVOTION.       Chap.  VIIL 

as  the  fact  may  be,  that  the  holy  kiss  of  love  differs  but 
little  from  that  which  a  man  bestows  on  a  woman,  or  a 
woman  on  a  man.^'  Devotion  is  chiefly  expressed  by 
the  face  being  directed  towards  the  heavens,  with  the 
eyeballs  upturned.  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks  that,  at  the  ap- 
proach of  sleep,  or  of  a  fainting-fit,  or  of  death,  the 
pupils  are  drawn  upwards  and  inwards;  and  he  believes 
that  "  when  we  are  wrapt  in  devotional  feelings,  and 
outward  impressions  are  unheeded,  the  eyes  are  raised 
by  an  action  neither  taught  nor  acquired; "  and  that 
this  is  due  to  the  same  cause  as  in  the  above  cases.^® 
That  the  eyes  are  upturned  during  sleep  is,  as  I  hear 
from  Professor  Bonders,  certain.  With  babies,  whilst 
sucking  their  mother's  breast,  this  mo-vement  of  the  eye- 
balls often  gives  to  them  an  absurd  appearance  of  ec- 
static delight;  and  here  it  may  be  clearly  perceived  that 
a  struggle  is  going  on  against  the  position  naturally 
assumed  during  sleep.  But  Sir  C.  Bell's  explanation  of 
the  fact,  which  rests  on  the  assumption  that  certain 
muscles  are  more  under  the  control  of  the  will  than 
others  is,  as  I  hear  from  Professor  Bonders,  incorrect. 
As  the  eyes  are  often  turned  up  in  prayer,  without  the 
mind  being  so  much  absorbed  in  thought  as  to  approach 
to  the  unconsciousness  of  sleep,  the  movement  is  prob- 
ably a  conventional  one — the  result  of  the  common  be- 
lief that  Heaven,  the  source  of  Bivine  power  to  which 
we  pray,  is  seated  above  us. 

A  humble  kneeling  posture,  with  the  hands  upturned 
and  palms  joined,  appears  to  us,  from  long  habit,  a  ges- 
ture so  appropriate  to  devotion,  that  it  might  be  thought 
to  be  innate;  but  I  have  not  met  with  any  evidence  to 


"  Dr.  Maudslev  has  a  discussion  to  this  effect  in  his 
*  Body  and  Mind,''l870,  p.  85. 

**  '  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  103,  and  *  Philo- 
sophical Transactioiis,'  1823,  p.  182. 


Chap.  VIII.       EXPRESSION  OF  DEVOTION.  219 

this  effect  with  the  various  extra-European  races  of 
mankind.  During  the  classical  period  of  Roman  history- 
it  does  not  appear,  as  I  hear  from  an  excellent  classic, 
that  the  hands  were  thus  joined  during  prayer.  Mr. 
Hensleigh  Wedgwood  has  apparently  given  ^^  the  true 
explanation,  though  this  implies  that  the  attitude  is  one 
of  slavish  subjection.  "  When  the  suppliant  kneels  and 
holds  up  his  hands  with  the  palms  joined,  he  represents 
a  captive  who  proves  the  completeness  of  his  submission 
by  offering  up  his  hands  to  be  bound  by  the  victor.  It 
is  the  pictorial  representation  of  the  Latin  dare  manus, 
to  signify  submission."  Hence  it  is  not  probable  that 
either  the  uplifting  of  the  eyes  or  the  joining  of  the  open 
hands,  under  the  influence  of  devotional  feelings,  are  in- 
nate or  truly  expressive  actions;  and  this  could  hardly 
have  been  expected,  for  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  feel- 
ings, such  as  we  should  now  rank  as  devotional,  affected 
the  hearts  of  men,  whilst  they  remained  during  past 
ages  in  an  uncivilized  condition. 


"  'The  Origin  of  Language,'  1866,  p.  146.  Mr.  Tylor 
('  Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  48)  gives 
a  more  complex  origin  to  the  position  of  the  hands  dur- 
ing prayer. 


220  REFLECTION.  Chap.  IX. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Reflection — Meditation — Ill-temper — Sulkin 
— Determination. 


The  act  of  frowning — Reflection  with  an  effort,  or  with  the 
perception  of  something  ditRcult  or  disagreeable — Ab- 
stracted meditation  —  Ill-temper — Moroseness  —  Obsti- 
nacy— Sulkiness  and  pouting — Decision  or  determina- 
tion— The  firm  closure  of  the  mouth. 


The  corrugators,  by  their  contraction,  lower  the  eye- 
brows and  bring  them  together,  producing  vertical  fur- 
rows on  the  forehead — that  is,  a  frown.  Sir  C.  Bell, 
who  erroneously  thought  that  the  corrugator  was  pecul- 
iar to  man,  ranks  it  as  "  the  most  remarkable  muscle 
of  the  human  face.  It  knits  the  eyebrows  with  an  ener- 
getic effort,  which  unaccountably,  but  irresistibly,  con- 
veys the  idea  of  mind."  Or,  as  he  elsewhere  says,  "  when 
the  eyebrows  are  knit,  energy  of  mind  is  apparent,  and 
there  is  the  mingling  of  thought  and  emotion  with  the 
savage  and  brutal  rage  of  the  mere  animal."  ^     There 


^  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  pp.  137,  139.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  corrugators  should  have  become  much 
more  developed  in  man  than  in  the  anthropoid  apes;  for 
they  are  brought  into  incessant  action  by  him  under  vari- 
ous circumstances,  and  will  have  been  strengthened  and 
modified  by  the  inherited  effects  of  use.  We  have  seen 
how  important  a  part  they  play,  together  with  the  orbicu- 
lares,  in  protecting  the  eyes  from  being  too  much  gorged 
with  blood  during  violent  expiratory  movements.  When 
the  eyes  are  closed  as  quickly  and  as  forcibly  as  possible, 


Chap.  IX.  REFLECTION.  221 

is  much  truth,  in  these  remarks,  but  hardly  the  whole 
truth.  Dr.  Duchenne  has  called  the  corrugator  the 
muscle  of  reflection;  ^  but  this  name,  without  some  lim- 
itation, cannot  be  considered  as  quite  correct. 

A  man  may  be  absorbed  in  the  deepest  thought,  and 
his  brow  will  remain  smooth  until  he  encounters  some 
obstacle  in  his  train  of  reasoning,  or  is  interrupted  by 
some  disturbance,  and  then  a  frown  passes  like  a  shadow 
over  his  brow.  A  half-starved  man  may  think  intently 
how  to  obtain  food,  but  he  probably  will  not  frown  un- 
less he  encounters  either  in  thought  or  action  some  dif- 
ficulty, or  finds  the  food  when  obtained  nauseous.  I 
have  noticed  that  almost  everyone  instantly  frowns  if 
he  perceives  a  strange  or  bad  taste  in  what  he  is  eating. 
I  asked  several  persons,  without  explaining  my  object, 
to  listen  intently  to  a  very  gentle  tapping  sound,  the 
nature  and  source  of  which  they  all  perfectly  knew,  and 
not  one  frowned;  but  a  man  who  joined  us,  and  who 
could  not  conceive  what  we  were  all  doing  in  profound 
silence,  when  asked  to  listen,  frowned  much,  though  not 
in  an  ill-temper,  and  said  he  could  not  in  the  least  under- 
stand what  we  all  wanted.  Dr.  Piderit,^  who  has  pub- 
lished remarks  to  the  same  effect,  adds  that  stammerers 
generally  frown  in  speaking;  and  that  a  man  in  doing 
even  so  trifling  a  thing  as  pulling  on  a  boot,  frowns  if 

to  save  them  from  being-  injured  by  a  blow,  the  corrugators 
contract.  With  savages  or  other  men  whose  heads  are 
uncovered,  the  ej^ebrows  are  continually  lowered  and  con- 
tracted to  serve  as  a  shade  against  a  too  strong  light;  and 
this  is  effected  partly  by  the  corrugators.  This  movement 
would  have  been  more  especially  serviceable  to  man,  as 
soon  as  his  early  progenitors  held  their  heads  erect.  Last- 
ly, Prof.  Bonders  believes  ('  Archives  of  Medicine,'  ed.  by 
L.  Beale,  1870,  vol.  v.  p.  34),  that  the  corrugators  are 
brought  into  action  in  causing  the  eyeball  to  advance  in 
accommodation  for  proximity  in  vision. 

'  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Album, 
Legende  iii. 

'  '  Mimik  und  Physiognomik/  s.  46. 


222  REFLECTION.  Chap.  IX. 

he  finds  it  too  tight.  Some  persons  are  such  habitual 
frowners,  that  the  mere  effort  of  speaking  almost  always 
causes  their  brows  to  contract. 

Men  of  all  races  frown  when  they  are  in  any  way  per- 
plexed in  thought,  as  I  infer  from  the  answers  which 
I  have  received  to  my  queries;  but  I  framed  them  badly, 
confounding  absorbed  meditation  with  perplexed  reflec- 
tion. Nevertheless,  it  is  clear  that  the  Australians, 
Malays,  Hindoos,  and  Kafirs  of  South  Africa  frown, 
when  they  are  puzzled.  Dobritzhoffer  remarks  that  the 
Guaranies  of  South  America  on  like  occasions  knit  their 
brows.'* 

From  these  considerations,  we  may  conclude  that 
frowning  is  not  the  expression  of  simple  reflection,  how- 
ever profound,  or  of  attention,  however  close,  but  of 
something  diflieult  or  displeasing  encountered  in  a  train 
of  thought  or  in  action.  Deep  reflection  can,  however, 
seldom  be  long  carried  on  without  some  diificulty,  so 
that  it  will  generally  be  accompanied  by  a  frown.  Hence 
it  is  that  frowning  commonly  gives  to  the  countenance, 
as  Sir  C.  Bell  remarks,  an  aspect  of  intellectual  energy. 
But  in  order  that  this  effect  may  be  produced,  the  eyes 
must  be  clear  and  steady,  or  they  may  be  cast  downwards, 
as  often  occurs  in  deep  thought.  The  countenance  must 
not  be  otherwise  disturbed,  as  in  the  case  of  an  ill-tem- 
pered or  peevish  man,  or  of  one  who  shows  the  effects 
of  prolonged  suffering,  with  dulled  eyes  and  drooping 
jaw,  or  who  perceives  a  bad  taste  in  his  food,  or  who 
finds  it  difficult  to  perform  some  trifling  act,  such  as 
threading  a  needle.  In  these  cases  a  frown  may  often  be 
seen,  but  it  will  be  accompanied  by  some  other  expres- 
sion, which  will  entirely  prevent  the  countenance  hav- 


*  '  History  of  the  Abipones,'  Eng--  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  59, 
as  quoted  by  Lubbock,  '  Origin  of  Civilisation,'  1870,  p.  355. 


Chap.  IX.  REFLECTION.  223 

ing  an  appearance  of  intellectual  energy  or  of  profound 
thought. 

We  may  now  inquire  how  it  is  that  a  frown  should 
express  the  perception  of  something  difficult  or  dis- 
agreeable, either  in  thought  or  action.  In  the  same 
way  as  naturalists  find  it  advisable  to  trace  the  embryo- 
logical  development  of  an  organ  in  order  fully  to  under- 
stand its  structure,  so  with  the  movements  of  expression 
it  is  advisable  to  follow  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same 
plan.  The  earliest  and  almost  sole  expression  seen  dur- 
ing the  first  days  of  infancy,  and  then  often  exhibited, 
is  that  displayed  during  the  act  of  screaming;  and 
screaming  is  excited,  both  at  first  and  for  some  time 
afterwards,  by  every  distressing  or  displeasing  sensation 
and  emotion, — by  hunger,  pain,  anger,  jealousy,  fear, 
&c.  At  such  times  the  muscles  round  the  eyes  are 
strongly  contracted;  and  this,  as  I  believe,  explains  to  a 
large  extent  the  act  of  frowning  during  the  remainder 
of  our  lives.  I  repeatedly  observed  my  own  infants, 
from  under  the  age  of  one  week  to  that  of  two  or  three 
months,  and  found  that  when  a  screaming-fit  came  on 
gradually,  the  first  sign  was  the  contraction  of  the  cor- 
rugators,  which  produced  a  slight  frown,  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  the  contraction  of  the  other  muscles  round 
the  eyes.  When  an  infant  is  uncomfortable  or  unwell, 
little  frowns — as  I  record  in  my  notes — may  be  seen  in- 
cessantly passing  like  shadows  over  its  face;  these  being 
generally,  but  not  always,  followed  sooner  or  later  by 
a  crying-fit.  For  instance,  I  watched  for  some  time  a 
baby,  between  seven  and  eight  weeks  old,  sucking  some 
milk  which  was  cold,  and  therefore  displeasing  to  him; 
and  a  steady  Uttle  frown  was  maintained  all  the  time. 
This  was  never  developed  into  an  actual  crying-fit, 
though  occasionally  every  stage  of  close  approach  could 
be  observed. 


224 


REFLECTION.  Chap.  IX, 


As  the  habit  of  contracting  the  brows  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  infants  during  innumerable  generations,  at  the 
commencement  of  every  crying  or  screaming  fit,  it  has 
become  firmly  associated  with  the  incipient  sense  of 
something  distressing  or  disagreeable.  Hence  under 
similar  circumstances  it  would  be  apt  to  be  continued 
during  maturity,  although  never  then  developed  into  a 
crying-fit.  Screaming  or  weeping  begins  to  be  volun- 
tarily restrained  at  an  early  period  of  Hf e,  whereas  frown- 
ing is  hardly  ever  restrained  at  any  age.  It  is  perhaps 
worth  notice  that  with  children  much  given  to  weeping, 
anything  which  perplexes  their  minds,  and  which  would 
cause  most  other  children  merely  to  frown,  readily 
makes  them  weep.  So  with  certain  classes  of  the  insane, 
any  effort  of  mind,  however  slight,  which  with  an  ha- 
bitual frowner  would  cause  a  slight  frown,  leads  to  their 
weeping  in  an  unrestrained  manner.  It  is  not  more  sur- 
prising that  the  habit  of  contracting  the  brows  at  the 
first  perception  of  something  distressing,  although 
gained  during  infancy,  should  be  retained  during  the 
rest  of  our  Hves,  than  that  many  other  associated  habits 
acquired  at  an  early  age  should  be  permanently  retained 
both  by  man  and  the  lower  animals.  For  instance,  full- 
grown  cats,  when  feeling  warm  and  comfortable,  often 
retain  the  habit  of  alternately  protruding  their  fore-feet 
with  extended  toes,  which  habit  they  practised  for  a 
definite  purpose  whilst  sucking  their  mothers. 

Another  and  distinct  cause  has  probably  strengthened 
the  habit  of  frowning,  whenever  the  mind  is  intent  on 
any  subject  and  encounters  some  difficulty.  Vision  is 
the  most  important  of  all  the  senses,  and  during  prime- 
val times  the  closest  attention  must  have  been  incessantly 
directed  towards  distant  objects  for  the  sake  of  obtain- 
ing prey  and  avoiding  danger.  I  remember  being  struck, 
whilst  travelhng  in  parts  of  South  America,  which  were 


Chap.  IX.  REFLECTION.  225 

dangerous  from  the  presence  of  Indians,  how  incessantly, 
yet  as  it  appeared  unconsciously,  the  half-wild  Gauchos 
closely  scanned  the  whole  horizon.  Now,  when  any  one 
with  no  covering  on  his  head  (as  must  have  been  abo- 
riginally the  case  with  mankind),  strives  to  the  utmost 
to  distinguish  in  broad  daylight,  and  especially  if  the 
sky  is  bright,  a  distant  object,  he  almost  invariably  con- 
tracts his  brows  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  too  much 
light;  the  lower  eyelids,  cheeks,  and  upper  lip  being  at 
the  same  time  raised,  so  as  to  lessen  the  orifice  of  the 
eyes.  I  have  purposely  asked  several  persons,  young 
and  old,  to  look,  under  the  above  circumstances,  at  dis- 
tant objects,  making  them  believe  that  I  only  wished 
to  test  the  power  of  their  vision;  and  they  all  behaved 
in  the  manner  just  described.  Some  of  them,  also,  put 
their  open,  flat  hands  over  their  eyes  to  keep  out  the 
excess  of  light.  Gratiolet,  after  making  some  remarks 
to  nearly  the  same  effect,^  says,  "  Ce  sont  la  des  atti- 
tudes de  vision  difficile."  He  concludes  that  the  muscles 
round  the  eyes  contract  partly  for  the  sake  of  excluding 
too  much  light  (which  appears  to  me  the  more  impor- 
tant end),  and  partly  to  prevent  all  rays  striking  the 
retina,  except  those  which  come  direct  from  the  object 
that  is  scrutinized.  Mr.  Bowman,  whom  I  consulted  on 
this  point,  thinks  that  the  contraction  of  the  surround- 
ing muscles  may,  in  addition,  "  partly  sustain  the  con- 
sensual movements  of  the  two  eyes,  by  giving  a  firmer 
support  while  the  globes  are  brought  to  binocular  vision 
by  their  own  proper  muscles." 

As  the  effort  of  viewing  with  care  under  a  bright 
light  a  distant  object  is  both  difficult  and  irksome,  and 


"  *  De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  15,  144,  146.  Mr.  Herbert 
Spencer  accounts  for  frowning'  exclusively  by  the  habit 
of  contracting  the  brows  as  a  shade  to  the  eyes  in  a  bright 
light:    see  '  Principles  of  Physiology,'  2nd  edit.  1872,  p.  546. 


226  MEDITATION.  Chap.  IX. 

as  this  effort  has  been  habitually  accompanied,  during 
numberless  generations,  by  the  contraction  of  the  eye- 
brows, the  habit  of  frowning  will  thus  have  been  much 
strengthened;  although  it  was  originally  practised  dur- 
ing infancy  from  a  quite  independent  cause,  namely  as 
the  first  step  in  the  protection  of  the  eyes  during  scream- 
ing. There  is,  indeed,  much  analogy,  as  far  as  the  state 
of  the  mind  is  concerned,  between  intently  scrutinizing 
a  distant  object,  and  following  out  an  obscure  train  of 
thought,  or  performing  some  little  and  troublesome  me- 
chanical work.  The  belief  that  the  habit  of  contracting 
the  brows  is  continued  when  there  is  no  need  whatever 
to  exclude  too  much  light,  receives  support  from  the 
cases  formerly  alluded  to,  in  which  the  eyebrows  or  eye- 
lids are  acted  on  under  certain  circumstances  in  a  use- 
less manner,  from  having  been  similarly  used,  under 
analogous  circumstances,  for  a  serviceable  purpose. 
For  instance,  we  voluntarily  close  our  eyes  when  we  do 
not  wish  to  see  any  object,  and  we  are  apt  to  close  them, 
when  we  reject  a  proposition,  as  if  we  could  not  or  would 
not  see  it;  or  when  we  think  about  something  horrible. 
We  raise  our  eyebrows  when  we  wish  to  see  quickly  all 
round  us,  and  we  often  do  the  same,  when  we  earnestly 
desire  to  remember  something;  acting  as  if  we  endeav- 
oured to  see  it. 

Abstraction.  Meditation. — When  a  person  is  lost  in 
thought  with  his  mind  absent,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
said,  "  when  he  is  in  a  brown  study,"  he  does  not  frown, 
but  his  eyes  appear  vacant.  The  lower  eyelids  are  gen- 
erally raised  and  wrinkled,  in  the  same  manner  as  when 
a  short-sighted  person  tries  to  distinguish  a  distant  ob- 
ject; and  the  upper  orbicular  muscles  are  at  the  same 
time  slightly  contracted.  The  wrinkling  of  the  lower 
eyelids  under  these  circumstances  has  been  observed 


Chap.  IX.  MEDITATION.  227 

with  some  savages,  as  by  Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  with  the  Aus- 
trahans  of  Queensland,  and  several  times  by  Mr.  Geach 
with  the  Malays  of  the  interior  of  Malacca.  What  the 
meaning  or  cause  of  this  action  may  be,  cannot  at  pres- 
ent be  explained;  but  here  we  have  another  instance  of 
movement  round  the  eyes  in  relation  to  the  state  of  the 
mind. 

The  vacant  expression  of  the  eyes  is  very  peculiar,  and 
at  once  shows  when  a  man  is  completely  lost  in  thought. 
Professor  Donders  has,  with  his  usual  kindness,  investi- 
gated this  subject  for  me.  He  has  observed  others  in 
this  condition,  and  has  been  himself  observed  by  Pro- 
fessor Engelmann.  The  eyes  are  not  then  fixed  on  any 
object,  and  therefore  not,  as  I  had  imagined,  on  some 
distant  object.  The  lines  of  vision  of  the  two  eyes  even 
often  become  slightly  divergent;  the  divergence,  if  the 
head  be  held  vertically,  with  the  plane  of  vision  hori- 
zontal, amounting  to  an  angle  of  2°  as  a  maximum. 
This  was  ascertained  by  observing  the  crossed  double 
image  of  a  distant  object.  When  the  head  droops  for- 
ward, as  often  occurs  with  a  man  absorbed  in  thought, 
owing  to  the  general  relaxation  of  his  muscles,  if  the 
plane  of  vision  be  still  horizontal,  the  eyes  are  necessarily 
a  little  turned  upwards,  and  then  the  divergence  is  as 
much  as  3°,  or  3°  5':  if  the  eyes  are  turned  still  more 
upwards,  it  amounts  to  between  6°  and  7°.  Professor 
Donders  attributes  this  divergence  to  the  almost  com- 
plete relaxation  of  certain  muscles  of  the  eyes,  which 
would  be  apt  to  follow  from  the  mind  being  wholly  ab- 
sorbed.®   The  active  condition  of  the  muscles  of  the  eyes 


•  Gratiolet  remarks  (De  la  Phys.  p.  35),  "  Quand  I'atten- 
tion  est  fixee  sur  quelque  ima^e  interieure,  I'oeil  regarde 
dans  le  vide  et  s'associe  automatiquement  a  la  contem- 
plation de  I'esprit."  But  this  view  hardly  deserves  to  be 
called  an  explanation. 


228 


ILL-TEMPER.  Chap.  IX, 


is  that  of  convergence;  and  Professor  Bonders  remarks, 
as  bearing  on  their  divergence  during  a  period  of  com- 
plete abstraction,  that  when  one  eye  becomes  blind,  it 
almost  always,  after  a  short  lapse  of  time,  deviates  out- 
wards; for  its  muscles  are  no  longer  used  in  moving  the 
eyeball  inwards  for  the  sake  of  binocular  vision. 

Perplexed  reflection  is  often  accompanied  by  certain 
movements  or  gestures.  At  such  times  we  commonly 
raise  our  hands  to  our  foreheads,  mouths,  or  chins;  but 
we  do  not  act  thus,  as  far  as  I  have  seen,  when  we  are 
quite  lost  in  meditation,  and  no  difficulty  is  encountered. 
Plautus,  describing  in  one  of  his  plays  ^  a  puzzled  man, 
says,  "  Now  look,  he  has  pillared  his  chin  upon  his 
hand."  Even  so  trifling  and  apparently  unmeaning  a 
gesture  as  the  raising  of  the  hand  to  the  face  has  been 
observed  with  some  savages.  M.  J.  Mansel  Weale  has 
seen  it  with  the  Kafirs  of  South  Africa;  and  the  native 
chief  Gaika  adds,  that  men  then  "  sometimes  pull  their 
beards."  Mr.  Washington  Matthews,  who  attended  to 
some  of  the  wildest  tribes  of  Indians  in  the  western 
regions  of  the  United  States,  remarks  that  he  has  seen 
them  when  concentrating  their  thoughts,  bring  their 
"  hands,  usually  the  thumb  and  index  finger,  in  contact 
with  some  part  of  the  face,  commonly  the  upper  lip." 
We  can  understand  why  the  forehead  should  be  pressed 
or  rubbed,  as  deep  thought  tries  the  brain;  but  why  the 
hand  should  be  raised  to  the  mouth  or  face  is  far  from 
clear. 

Ill-temper.— ^Q  have  seen  that  frowning  is  the  nat- 
ural expression  of  some  difficulty  encountered,  or  of 
something  disagreeable  experienced  either  in  thought  or 
action,  and  he  whose  mind  is  often  and  readily  affected 

'  '  Miles  Gloriosus,'  act  ii.  sc.  2. 


Chap.  IX.  ILL-TEMPER.  229 

in  this  way,  will  be  apt  to  be  ill-tempered,  or  slightly 
angry,  or  peevish,  and  will  commonly  show  it  by  frown- 
ing. But  a  cross  expression,  due  to  a  frown,  may  be 
counteracted,  if  the  mouth  appears  sweet,  from  being 
habitually  drawn  into  a  smile,  and  the  eyes  are  bright 
and  cheerful.  So  it  will  be  if  the  eye  is  clear  and  steady, 
and  there  is  the  appearance  of  earnest  reflection.  Frown- 
ing, with  some  depression  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth, 
which  is  a  sign  of  grief,  gives  an  air  of  peevishness.  If 
a  child  (see  Plate  IV.,  fig.  2)  ^  frowns  much  whilst  cry- 
ing, but  does  not  strongly  contract  in  the  usual  man- 
ner the  orbicular  muscles,  a  well-marked  expression  of 
anger  or  even  of  rage,  together  with  misery,  is  dis- 
played. 

If  the  whole  frowning  brow  be  drawn  much  down- 
ward by  the  contraction  of  the  pyramidal  muscles  of  the 
nose,  which  produces  transverse  wrinkles  or  folds  across 
the  base  of  the  nose,  the  expression  becomes  one  of  mo- 
roseness.  Duchenne  believes  that  the  contraction  of 
this  muscle,  without  any  frowning,  gives  the  appearance 
of  extreme  and  aggressive  hardness.^  But  I  much  doubt 
whether  this  is  a  true  or  natural  expression.  I  have 
shown  Duchenne's  photograph  of  a  young  man,  with 
this  muscle  strongly  contracted  by  means  of  galvanism, 
to  eleven  persons,  including  some  artists,  and  none  of 
them  could  form  an  idea  what  was  intended,  except  one, 
a  girl,  who  answered  correctly,  "  surely  reserve."  When 
I  first  looked  at  this  photograph,  knowing  what  was  in- 
tended, my  imagination  added,  as  I  believe,  what  was 
necessary,  namely,  a  frowning  brow;  and  consequently 


*  The  original  photograph  by  Herr  Kindermann  is  much 
more  expressive  than  this  copy,  as  it  shows  the  frown  on 
the  brow  more  plainly. 

"  *  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Album, 
Legende  iv.  figs.  16—18. 


230  SULKINESS.  Chap.  IX 

the  expression  appeared  to  me  true  and  extremely  mo- 
rose. 

A  firmly  closed  mouth,  in  addition  to  a  lowered  and 
frowning  brow,  gives  determination  to  the  expression, 
or  may  make  it  obstinate  and  sullen.  How  it  comes 
that  the  firm  closure  of  the  mouth  gives  the  appear- 
ance of  determination  will  presently  be  discussed.  An 
expression  of  sullen  obstinacy  has  been  clearly  recog- 
nized by  my  informants,  in  the  natives  of  six  different 
regions  of  Australia.  It  is  well  marked,  according  to 
Mr.  Scott,  with  the  Hindoos.  It  has  been  recognized 
with  the  Malays,  Chinese,  Kafirs,  Abyssinians,  and  in 
a  conspicuous  degree,  according  to  Dr.  Rothrock,  with 
the  wild  Indians  of  North  America,  and  according  to 
Mr.  D.  Forbes,  with  the  Aymaras  of  Bolivia.  I  have 
also  observed  it  with  the  Araucanos  of  southern  Chili. 
Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  remarks  that  the  natives  of  Australia, 
when  in  this  frame  of  mind,  sometimes  fold  their  arms 
across  their  breasts,  an  attitude  which  may  be  seen  with 
us.  A  firm  determination,  amounting  to  obstinacy,  is, 
also,  sometimes  expressed  by  both  shoulders  being  kept 
raised,  the  meaning  of  which  gesture  will  be  explained 
in  the  follo^ving  chapter. 

With  young  children  sulkiness  is  shown  by  pouting, 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  "  making  a  snout."  ^°  When 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  are  much  depressed,  the  lower 
lip  is  a  Httle  everted  and  protruded;  and  this  is  like- 
wise called  a  pout.  But  the  pouting  here  referred  to, 
consists  of  the  protrusion  of  both  lips  into  a  tubular 
form,  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  as  to  project  as  far 
as  the  end  of  the  nose,  if  this  be  short.  Pouting  is  gen- 
erally accompanied  by  frowning,  and  sometimes  by  the 


^°  Hensleigh  Wedgwood  on  'The  Origin  of  Language,' 
1866,  p.  78. 


Chap.  IX.  SULKINESS.  231 

utterance  of  a  booing  or  whooing  noise.  This  expression 
is  remarkable,  as  almost  the  sole  one,  as  far  as  I  know, 
which  is  exhibited  much  more  plainly  during  childhood, 
at  least  with  Europeans,  than  during  maturity.  There 
is,  however,  some  tendency  to  the  protrusion  of  the  lips 
with  the  adults  of  all  races  under  the  influence  of  great 
rage.  Some  children  pout  when  they  are  shy,  and  they 
can  then  hardly  be  called  sulky. 

From  inquiries  which  I  have  made  in  several  large 
families,  pouting  does  not  seem  very  common  with  Euro- 
pean children;  but  it  prevails  throughout  the  world,  and 
must  be  both  common  and  strongly  marked  with  most 
savage  races,  as  it  has  caught  the  attention  of  many  ob- 
servers. It  has  been  noticed  in  eight  different  districts 
of  Australia;  and  one  of  my  informants  remarks  how 
greatly  the  lips  of  the  children  are  then  protruded.  Two 
observers  have  seen  pouting  with  the  children  of  Hin- 
doos; three,  with  those  of  the  Kafirs  and  Fingoes  of 
South  Africa,  and  with  the  Hottentots;  and  two,  with 
the  children  of  the  wild  Indians  of  North  America. 
Pouting  has  also  been  observed  with  the  Chinese,  Abys- 
sinians,  Malays  of  Malacca,  Dyaks  of  Borneo,  and  often 
with  the  New  Zealanders.  Mr.  Mansel  Weale  informs 
me  that  he  has  seen  the  lips  much  protruded,  not  only 
with  the  children  of  the  Kafirs,  but  with  the  adults  of 
both  sexes  when  sulky;  and  Mr.  Stack  has  sometimes 
observed  the  same  thing  with  the  men,  and  very  fre- 
quently with  the  women  of  New  Zealand.  A  trace  of  the 
same  expression  may  occasionally  be  detected  even  with 
adult  Europeans. 

We  thus  see  that  the  protrusion  of  the  lips,  espe- 
cially with  young  children,  is  characteristic  of  sulkiness 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  world.  This  move- 
ment apparently  results  from  the  retention,  chiefly  dur- 
ing youth,  of  a  primordial  habit,  or  from  an  occasional 


232 


SULKINESS.  Chap.  IX. 


reversion  to  it.     Young  orangs  and  chimpanzees  pro- 
trude their  lips  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  as  described 
in  a  former  chapter,  when  they  are  discontented,  some- 
what angry,  or  sulky;  also  when  they  are  surprised,  a 
little  frightened,  and  even  when  slightly  pleased.    Their 
mouths  are  protruded  apparently  for  the  sake  of  mak- 
ing the  various  noises  proper  to  these  several  states  of 
mind;  and  its  shape,  as  I  observed  with  the  chimpanzee, 
differed  slightly  when  the  cry  of  pleasure  and  that  of 
anger  were  uttered.     As  soon  as  these  animals  become 
enraged,  the  shape  of  the  mouth  wholly  changes,  and 
the  teeth  are  exposed.    The  adult  orang  when  wounded 
is  said  to  emit  "  a  singular  cry,  consisting  at  first  of  high 
notes,  which  at  length  deepen  into  a  low  roar.     While 
giving  out  the  high  notes  he  thrusts  out  his  lips  into  a 
funnel  shape,  but  in  uttering  the  low  notes  he  holds  his 
mouth  wide  open."  "    With  the  gorilla,  the  lower  lip  is 
said  to  be  capable  of  great  elongation.    If  then  our  semi- 
human  progenitors  protruded  their  lips  when  sulky  or 
a  little  angered,  in  the  same  manner  as  do  the  existing 
anthropoid  apes,  it  is  not  an  anomalous,  though  a  curi- 
ous fact,  that  our  children  should  exhibit,  when  similarly 
affected,  a  trace  of  the  same  expression,  together  with 
some  tendency  to  utter  a  noise.    For  it  is  not  at  all  un- 
usual for  animals  to  retain,  more  or  less  perfectly,  during 
early  youth,  and  subsequently  to  lose,  characters  which 
were  aboriginally  possessed  by  their  adult  progenitors, 
and  which  are  still  retained  by  distinct  species,  their 
near  relations. 

Nor  is  it  an  anomalous  fact  that  the  children  of  sav- 
ages should  exhibit  a  stronger  tendency  to  protrude 
their  lips,  when  sulky,  than  the  children  of  civilized 


"  Miiller,  as  quoted  by  Huxley,  '  Man's  Place  in  Nature,* 
1863,  p.  38. 


Chap.  IX.  DECISION.  233 

Europeans;  for  the  essence  of  savagery  seems  to  consist 
in  the  retention  of  a  primordial  condition,  and  this  occa- 
sionally holds  good  even  with  bodily  peculiarities.^^  It 
may  be  objected  to  this  view  of  the  origin  of  pouting, 
that  the  anthropoid  apes  likewise  protrude  their  lips 
when  astonished  and  even  when  a  little  pleased;  whilst 
with  us  this  expression  is  generally  confined  to  a  sulky 
frame  of  mind.  But  we  shall  see  in  a  future  chapter 
that  with  men  of  various  races  surprise  does  sometimes 
lead  to  a  slight  protrusion  of  the  lips,  though  great  sur- 
prise or  astonishment  is  more  commonly  shown  by  the 
mouth  being  widely  opened.  As  when  we  smile  or  laugh 
we  draw  back  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  we  have  lost 
any  tendency  to  protrude  the  lips,  when  pleased,  if  in- 
deed our  early  progenitors  thus  expressed  pleasure. 

A  little  gesture  made  by  sulky  children  may  here  be 
noticed,  namely,  their  "  showing  a  cold  shoulder."  This 
has  a  different  meaning,  as,  I  believe,  from  the  keeping 
both  shoulders  raised.  A  cross  child,  sitting  on  its  par- 
ent's knee,  will  lift  up  the  near  shoulder,  then  jerk  it 
away,  as  if  from  a  caress,  and  afterwards  give  a  backward 
push  with  it,  as  if  to  push  away  the  offender.  I  have 
seen  a  child,  standing  at  some  distance  from  any  one, 
clearly  express  its  feelings  by  raising  one  shoulder,  giving 
it  a  little  backward  movement,  and  then  turning  away  its 
whole  body. 

Decision  or  determination. — The  firm  closure  of  the 
mouth  tends  to  give  an  expression  of  determination  or 
decision  to  the  countenance.  Xo  determined  man  prob- 
ably ever  had  an  habitually  gaping  mouth.  Hence,  also, 
a  small  and  weak  lower  jaw,  which  seems  to  indicate  that 


"I  hare  ^iTen  several  instances  in  my  *  Descent  of  Man,* 
Yol.  i.  chap.  iv. 
16 


234  DECISION.  Chap.  IX. 

the  mouth  is  not  habitually  and  firmly  closed,  is  com- 
monly thought  to  be  characteristic  of  feebleness  of  char- 
acter. A  prolonged  effort  of  any  kind,  whether  of  body 
or  mind,  implies  previous  determination;  and  if  it  can 
be  shown  that  the  mouth  is  generally  closed  with  firm- 
ness before  and  during  a  great  and  continued  exertion 
of  the  muscular  system,  then,  through  the  principle  of 
association,  the  mouth  would  almost  certainly  be  closed 
as  soon  as  any  determined  resolution  was  taken.  Now 
several  observers  have  noticed  that  a  man,  in  commenc- 
ing any  violent  muscular  effort,  invariably  first  distends 
his  lungs  with  air,  and  then  compresses  it  by  the  strong 
contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  chest;  and  to  effect 
this  the  mouth  must  be  firmly  closed.  Moreover,  as  soon 
as  the  man  is  compelled  to  draw  breath,  he  still  keeps 
his  chest  as  much  distended  as  possible. 

Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  manner  of 
acting.  Sir  C.  Bell  maintains  "  that  the  chest  is  dis- 
tended with  air,  and  is  kept  distended  at  such  times,  in 
order  to  give  a  fixed  support  to  the  muscles  which  are 
thereto  attached.  Hence,  as  he  remarks,  when  two  men 
are  engaged  in  a  deadly  contest,  a  terrible  silence  pre- 
vails, broken  only  by  hard  stifled  breathing.  There  is 
silence,  because  to  expel  the  air  in  the  utterance  of  any 
sound  would  be  to  relax  the  support  for  the  muscles  of 
the  arms.  If  an  outcry  is  heard,  supposing  the  struggle 
to  take  place  in  the  dark,  we  at  once  know  that  one  of 
the  two  has  given  up  in  despair. 

Gratiolet  admits  ^*  that  when  a  man  has  to  struggle 
with  another  to  his  utmost,  or  has  to  support  a  great 
weight,  or  to  keep  for  a  long  time  the  same  forced  atti- 
tude, it  is  necessary  for  him  first  to  make  a  deep  inspira- 


"  '  Anatomv  of  Expression.'  p.  190. 
"  ♦  De  la  Physionomie,'  pp.  118-121. 


Chap.  IX.  DECISION.  235 

tion,  and  then  to  cease  breathing;  but  he  thinks  that 
Sir  C.  Bell's  explanation  is  erroneous.  He  maintains 
that  arrested  respiration  retards  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  of  which  I  believe  there  is  no  doubt,  and  he  ad- 
duces some  curious  evidence  from  the  structure  of  the 
lower  animals,  showing,  on  the  one  hand,  that  a  retarded 
circulation  is  necessary  for  prolonged  muscular  exertion, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  a  rapid  circulation  is  neces- 
sary for  rapid  movements.  According  to  this  view,  when 
we  commence  any  great  exertion,  we  close  our  mouths 
and  stop  breathing,  in  order  to  retard  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  Gratiolet  sums  up  the  subject  by  saying, 
"  C'est  la  la  vraie  theorie  de  I'effort  continu; ''  but  how 
far  this  theory  is  admitted  by  other  physiologists  I  do 
not  know. 

Dr.  Piderit  accounts  ^^  for  the  firm  closure  of  the 
mouth  during  strong  muscular  exertion,  on  the  principle 
that  the  influence  of  the  will  spreads  to  other  muscles  be- 
sides those  necessarily  brought  into  action  in  making  any 
particular  exertion;  and  it  is  natural  that  the  muscles 
of  respiration  and  of  the  mouth,  from  being  so  habit- 
ually used,  should  be  especially  liable  to  be  thus  acted 
on.  It  appears  to  me  that  there  probably  is  some  truth 
in  this  view,  for  we  are  apt  to  press  the  teeth  hard  to- 
gether during  violent  exertion,  and  this  is  not  requisite 
to  prevent  expiration,  whilst  the  muscles  of  the  chest 
are  strongly  contracted. 

Lastly,  when  a  man  has  to  perform  some  delicate  and 
difficult  operation,  not  requiring  the  exertion  of  any 
strength,  he  nevertheless  generally  closes  his  mouth  and 
ceases  for  a  time  to  breathe;  but  he  acts  thus  in  order 
that  the  movements  of  his  chest  may  not  disturb  those 
of  his  arms,    A  person,  for  instance,  whilst  threading  a 

"  *  Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  s.  79. 


DECISION.  Chap.  IX 

needle,  may  be  seen  to  compress  his  lips  and  either  to 
stop  breathing,  or  to  breathe  as  quietly  as  possible.  So 
it  was,  as  formerly  stated,  with  a  young  and  sick  chim- 
panzee, whilst  it  amused  itself  by  killing  flies  with  its 
knuckles,  as  they  buzzed  about  on  the  window-panes. 
To  perform  an  action,  however  trifling,  if  difficult,  im- 
plies some  amount  of  previous  determination. 

There  appears  nothing  improbable  in  all  the  above 
assigned  causes  having  come  into  play  in  different  de- 
grees, either  conjointly  or  separately,  on  various  occa- 
sions. The  result  would  be  a  well-established  habit, 
now  perhaps  inherited,  of  firmly  closing  the  mouth  at 
the  commencement  of  and  during  any  violent  and  pro- 
longed exertion,  or  any  delicate  operation.  Through 
the  principle  of  association  there  would  also  be  a  strong 
tendency  towards  this  same  habit,  as  soon  as  the  mind 
had  resolved  on  any  particular  action  or  line  of  con- 
duct, even  before  there  was  any  bodily  exertion,  or  if 
none  were  requisite.  The  habitual  and  firm  closure  of 
the  mouth  would  thus  come  to  show  decision  of  char- 
acter; and  decision  readily  passes  into  obstinacy. 


Chap.  X.  ANGER.  237 


CHAPTER  X. 
Hatred  and  Anger. 

Hatred — Rag-e,  effects  of  on  the  system — Uncovering  of  the 
teeth — Rage  in  the  insane — Ang-er  and  indig-nation — As 
expressed  by  the  various  races  of  man — Sneering  and 
defiance — The  uncovering  of  the  canine  tooth  on  one 
side  of  the  face. 

If  we  have  suffered  or  expect  to  suffer  some  wilful 
injury  from  a  man,  or  if  he  is  in  any  way  offensive  to 
us,  we  dislike  him;  and  dislike  easily  rises  into  hatred. 
Such  feelings,  if  experienced  in  a  moderate  degree,  are 
not  clearly  expressed  by  any  movement  of  the  body  or 
features,  excepting  perhaps  by  a  certain  gravity  of  be- 
haviour, or  by  some  ill-temper.  Few  individuals,  how- 
ever, can  long  reflect  about  a  hated  person,  without  feel- 
ing and  exhibiting  signs  of  indignation  or  rage.  But 
if  the  offending  person  be  quite  insignificant,  we  ex- 
perience merely  disdain  or  contempt.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  he  is  all-powerful,  then  hatred  passes  into  terror, 
as  when  a  slave  thinks  about  a  cruel  master,  or  a  savage 
about  a  bloodthirsty  malignant  deity.^  Most  of  our 
emotions  are  so  closely  connected  with  their  expression, 
that  they  hardly  exist  if  the  body  remains  passive — the 
nature  of  the  expression  depending  in  chief  part  on  the 


^  See  some  remarks  to  this  effect  by  Mr.  Bain,   '  The 
Emotions  and  the  Will/  2nd  edit.  1865,  p.  127. 


238  ANGER.  Chap.  X. 

nature  of  the  actions  which  have  been  habitually  per- 
formed under  this  particular  state  of  the  mind.  A  man, 
for  instance,  may  know  that  his  life  is  in  the  extremest 
peril,  and  may  strongly  desire  to  save  it;  yet,  as  Louis 
XVI.  said,  when  surrounded  by  a  fierce  mob,  "  Am  I 
afraid?  feel  my  pulse."  So  a  man  may  intensely  hate 
another,  but  until  his  bodily  frame  is  affected,  he  can- 
not be  said  to  be  enraged. 

Rage. — I  have  already  had  occasion  to  treat  of  this 
emotion  in  the  third  chapter,  when  discussing  the  direct 
influence  of  the  excited  sensorium  on  the  body,  in  com- 
bination with  the  effects  of  habitually  associated  actions. 
Eage  exhibits  itself  in  the  most  diversified  manner.  The 
heart  and  circulation  are  always  affected;  the  face  red- 
dens or  becomes  purple,  with  the  veins  on  the  forehead 
and  neck  distended.  The  reddening  of  the  skin  has  been 
observed  with  the  copper-coloured  Indians  of  South 
America,-  and  even,  as  it  is  said,  on  the  white  cicatrices 
left  by  old  wounds  on  negroes.^  Monkeys  also  redden 
from  passion.  With  one  of  my  own  infants,  under  four 
months  old,  I  repeatedly  observed  that  the  first  symp- 
tom of  an  approaching  passion  was  the  rushing  of  the 
blood  into  his  bare  scalp.  On  the  other  hand,  the  action 
of  the  heart  is  sometimes  so  much  impeded  by  great  rage, 
that  the  countenance  becomes  pallid  or  hvid,*  and  not 
a  few  men  with  heart-disease  have  dropped  down  dead 
under  this  pow^erful  emotion. 


*  Reng-g-er,  Naturgesch.  der  Saugethiere  von  Parag-uay, 
1830,  s.  3. 

'  Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  96.  On  the 
other  hand.  Dr.  Burgess  ('  Physiology  of  Blushing-,'  1839, 
p.  31)  speaks  of  the  reddening  of  a  cicatrix  in  a  negress 
as  of  the  nature  of  a  blush. 

*  Moreau  and  Gratiolet  have  discussed  the  colour  of  the 
face  under  the  influence  of  intense  passion:  see  the  edit. 
of  1820  of  Lavater,  vol.  iv.  pp.  282  and  300;  and  Gratiolet, 
*  De  la  Physionomie,'  p.  345. 


CflAP.  X.  ANGER. 

The  respiration  is  likewise  affected;  the  chest  heaves, 
and  the  dilated  nostrils  quiver.^  As  Tennyson  writes, 
"  sharp  breaths  of  anger  puffed  her  fairy  nostrils  out." 
Hence  we  have  such  expressions  as  "  breathing  out 
vengeance/'  and  "  fuming  with  anger."  ® 

The  excited  brain  gives  strength  to  the  muscles,  and 
at  the  same  time  energy  to  the  v;ill.  The  body  is  com- 
monly held  erect  ready  for  instant  action,  but  sometimes 
it  is  bent  forward  towards  the  offending,  person,  with 
the  limbs  more  or  less  rigid.  The  mouth  is  generally 
closed  with  firmness,  showing  fixed  determination,  and 
the  teeth  are  clenched  or  ground  together.  Such  ges- 
tures as  the  raising  of  the  arms,  with  the  fists  clenched, 
as  if  to  strike  the  offender,  are  common.  Few  men  in 
a  great  passion,  and  telling  some  one  to  begone,  can  re- 
sist acting  as  if  they  intended  to  strike  or  push  the  man 
violently  away.  The  desire,  indeed,  to  strike  often  be- 
comes so  intolerably  strong,  that  inanimate  objects  are 
struck  or  dashed  to  the  ground;  but  the  gestures  fre- 
quently become  altogether  purposeless  or  frantic.  Young 
children,  when  in  a  violent  rage  roll  on  the  ground  on 
their  backs  or  bellies,  screaming,  kicking,  scratching,  or 

^  Sir  C.  Bell  (*  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  pp.  91,  107)  has 
fully  discussed  this  subject.  Moreau  remarks  (in  the  edit, 
of  1820  of  '  La  Physionomie,  par  G.  Lavater,'  vol.  iv.  p.  237), 
and  quotes  Portal  in  confirmation,  that  asthmatic  patients 
acquire  permanently  expanded  nostrils,  owing-  to  the  ha- 
bitual contraction  of  the  elevatorj'  muscles  of  the  wings 
of  the  nose.  The  explanation  by  Dr.  Piderit  ('  Mimik  und 
Physiognomik,'  s.  82)  of  the  distension  of  the  nostrils, 
namely,  to  allow  free  breathing  whilst  the  mouth  is  closed 
and  the  t^eth  clenched,  does  not  appear  to  be  nearly  so 
correct  as  that  by  Sir  C.  Bell,  who  attributes  it  to  the  sym- 
pathy (i.  €.  habitual  co-a«tion)  of  all  the  respiratory  mus- 
cles. The  nostrils  of  an  angry  man  may  be  seen  to  become 
dilated,  although  his  mouth  is  open. 

'  Mr.  Wedgwood,  *  On  the  Origin  of  Language,'  1866, 
p.  76.  He  also  observes  that  the  sound  of  hard  breathing 
"  is  represented  by  the  syllables  puff,  huff,  whiff,  whence  a 
huff  is  a  fit  of  ill-temper." 


240  ANGER.  Chap.  X. 

biting  everything  within  reach.  So  it  is,  as  I  hear  from 
Mr.  Scott,  with  Hindoo  children;  and,  as  we  have  seen, 
with  the  young  of  the  anthropomorphous  apes. 

But  the  muscular  system  is  often  affected  in  a  wholly 
different  way;  for  trembling  is  a  frequent  consequence 
of  extreme  rage.  The  paralysed  lips  then  refuse  to  obey 
the  will,  "  and  the  voice  sticks  in  the  throat; "  '^  or  it 
is  rendered  loud,  harsh,  and  discordant.  If  there  be 
much  and  rapid  speaking,  the  mouth  froths.  The  hair 
sometimes  bristles;  but  I  shall  return  to  this  subject 
in  another  chapter,  when  I  treat  of  the  mingled  emo- 
tions of  rage  and  terror.  There  is  in  most  cases  a 
strongly-marked  frown  on  the  forehead;  for  this  follows 
from  the  sense  of  anything  displeasing  or  difficult,  to- 
gether with  concentration  of  mind.  But  sometimes  the 
brow,  instead  of  being  much  contracted  and  lowered, 
remains  smooth,  with  the  glaring  eyes  kept  widely  open. 
The  eyes  are  always  bright,  or  may,  as  Homer  expresses 
it,  glisten  with  fire.  They  are  sometimes  bloodshot,  and 
are  said  to  protrude  from  their  sockets — the  result,  no 
doubt,  of  the  head  being  gorged  with  blood,  as  shown 
by  the  veins  being  distended.  According  to  Gratiolet,® 
the  pupils  are  always  contracted  in  rage,  and  I  hear  from 
Dr.  Crichton  Browne  that  this  is  the  case  in  the  fierce 
delirium  of  meningitis;  but  the  movements  of  the  iris 
under  the  influence  of  the  different  emotions  is  a  very 
obscure  subject. 

Shakspeare  sums  up  the  chief  characteristics  of  rage 
as  follows: — 

"  In  peace  there's  nothing"  so  becomes  a  man, 
As  modest  stillness  and  humility; 
But  when  the  blast  of  war  blows  in  our  ears, 

^  Sir  C.  Bell  ('  Anatomy  of  Expression/  p.  95)  has  some 
excellent  remarks  on  the  expression  of  rage. 
»  '  De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  346. 


Chap.  X.  ANGER.  341 

Then  imitate  the  action  of  the  tiger: 
Stitfen  the  sinews,  summon  up  the  blood, 
Then  lend  the  eye  a  terrible  aspect; 
Now  set  the  teeth,  and  stretch  the  nostril  wide, 
Hold  hard  the  breath,  and  bend  up  every  spirit 
To  his  full  height!     On,  on,  you  noblest  English." 

Henry  Y.,  act  iii.  sc.  1. 

The  lips  are  sometimes  protruded  during  rage  in  a 
manner,  the  meaning  of  which  I  do  not  understand, 
unless  it  depends  on  our  descent  from  some  ape-like 
animal.  Instances  have  been  observed,  not  only  with 
Europeans,  but  with  the  Australians  and  Hindoos.  The 
lips,  however,  are  much  more  commonly  retracted,  the 
grinning  or  clenched  teeth  being  thus  exposed.  This 
has  been  noticed  by  almost  every  one  who  has  written 
on  expression.^  The  appearance  is  as  if  the  teeth  were 
uncovered,  ready  for  seizing  or  tearing  an  enemy,  though 
there  may  be  no  intention  of  acting  in  this  manner.  Mr. 
Dyson  Lacy  has  seen  this  grinning  expression  with  the 
Australians,  when  quarrelling,  and  so  has  Gaika  with 
the  Kafirs  of  South  America.  Dickens,^*^  in  speaking 
of  an  atrocious  murderer  who  had  just  been  caught,  and 
was  surrounded  by  a  furious  mob,  describes  "  the  people 
as  jumping  up  one  behind  another,  snarling  with  their 
teeth,  and  making  at  him  like  wild  beasts."  Every  one 
who  has  had  much  to  do  with  young  children  must  have 


*  Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  177.  Gratiolet 
(De  la  Phys.  p.  369)  says,  "  les  dents  se  decouvrent,  et 
imitent  symboliquement  Taction  de  dechirer  et  de  mordre." 
If,  instead  of  using  the  vague  term  symboliquement,  Gratio- 
let had  said  that  the  action  was  a  remnant  of  a  habit  ac- 
quired during  primeval  times  when  our  semi-human  pro- 
genitors fought  together  with  their  teeth,  like  gorillas  and 
orangs  at  the  present  day,  he  would  have  been  more  intel- 
ligible. Dr.  Piderit  ('  Mimik,'  &c.,  s.  82)  also  speaks  of 
the  retraction  of  the  upper  lip  during  rage.  In  an  engrav- 
ing of  one  of  Hogarth's  wonderful  pictures,  passion  is  rep- 
resented in  the  plainest  manner  by  the  open  glaring  eyes, 
frowning  forehead,  and  exposed  grinning  teeth. 

"  '  Oliver  Twist,'  vol.  iii.  p.  245. 


242  ANGER.  Chap.  X. 

seen  how  naturally  they  take  to  hiting,  when  in  a  passion. 
It  seems  as  instinctive  in  them  as  in  young  crocodiles, 
who  snap  their  little  jaws  as  soon  as  they  emerge  from 
the  egg. 

A  grinning  expression  and  the  protrusion  of  the  lips 
appear  sometimes  to  go  together.  A  close  observer  says 
that  he  has  seen  many  instances  of  intense  hatred  (which 
can  hardly  be  distinguished  from  rage,  more  or  less  sup- 
pressed) in  Orientals,  and  once  in  an  elderly  English 
woman.  In  all  these  cases  there  "  was  a  grin,  not  a  scowl 
— the  lips  lengthening,  the  cheeks  settling  downwards, 
the  eyes  half-closed,  whilst  the  brow  remained  perfectly 
calm."  " 

This  retraction  of  the  lips  and  uncovering  of  the  teeth 
during  paroxysms  of  rage,  as  if  to  bite  the  offender,  is 
so  remarkable,  considering  how  seldom  the  teeth  are 
used  by  men  in  fighting,  that  I  inquired  from  Dr.  J. 
Crichton  Browne  whether  the  habit  was  common  in  the 
insane  whose  passions  are  unbridled.  He  informs  me 
that  he  has  repeatedly  observed  it  both  with  the  insane 
and  idiotic,  and  has  given  me  the  following  illustra- 
tions:— 

Shortly  before  receiving  my  letter,  he  witnessed  an 
uncontrollable  outbreak  of  anger  and  delusive  jealousy 
in  an  insane  lad}^  At  first  she  vituperated  her  husband, 
and  whilst  doing  so  foamed  at  the  mouth.  Next  she  ap- 
proached close  to  him  with  compressed  lips,  and  a  viru- 
lent set  frown.  Then  she  drew  back  her  lips,  especially 
the  corners  of  the  upper  lip,  and  showed  her  teeth,  at 
the  same  time  aiming  a  vicious  blow  at  him.  A  second 
case  is  that  of  an  old  soldier,  who,  when  he  is  requested 
to  conform  to  the  rules  of  the  establishment,  gives  way 
to  discontent,  terminating  in  fury.    He  commonly  begins 

"  *  The  Spectator,'  July  11,  1868,  p.  819. 


Chap.  X.  ANGER.  243 

by  asking  Dr.  Browne  whether  he  is  not  ashamed  to 
treat  him  in  such  a  manner.  He  then  swears  and  blas- 
phemes, paces  up  and  down,  tosses  his  arms  wildly  about, 
and  menaces  any  one  near  him.  At  last,  as  his  exaspera- 
tion culminates,  he  rushes  up  towards  Dr.  Browne  with 
a  peculiar  sidelong  movement,  shaking  his  doubled  fist, 
and  threatening  destruction.  Then  his  upper  lip  may 
be  seen  to  be  raised,  especially  at  the  corners,  so  that 
his  huge  canine  teeth  are  exhibited.  He  hisses  forth  his 
curses  through  his  set  teeth,  and  his  whole  expression 
assumes  the  character  of  extreme  ferocity.  A  similar 
description  is  applicable  to  another  man,  excepting  that 
he  generally  foams  at  the  mouth  and  spits,  dancing  and 
jumping  about  in  a  strange  rapid  manner,  shrieking  out 
his  maledictions  in  a  shrill  falsetto  voice. 

Dr.  Browne  also  informs  me  of  the  case  of  an  epileptic 
idiot,  incapable  of  independent  movements,  and  who 
spends  the  whole  day  in  playing  with  some  toys;  but 
his  temper  is  morose  and  easily  roused  into  fierceness. 
When  any  one  touches  his  toys,  he  slowly  raises  his 
head  from  its  habitual  downward  position,  and  fixes  his 
eyes  on  the  offender,  with  a  tardy  yet  angry  scowl.  If 
the  annoyance  be  repeated,  he  draws  back  his  thick  lips 
and  reveals  a  prominent  row  of  hideous  fangs  (large 
canines  being  especially  noticeable),  and  then  makes  a 
quick  and  cruel  clutch  with  his  open  hand  at  the  offend- 
ing person.  The  rapidity  of  this  clutch,  as  Dr.  Browne 
remarks,  is  marvellous  in  a  being  ordinarily  so  torpid 
that  he  takes  about  fifteen  seconds,  when  attracted  by 
any  noise,  to  turn  his  head  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
If,  when  thus  incensed,  a  handkerchief,  book,  or  other 
article,  be  placed  into  his  hands,  he  drags  it  to  his  mouth 
and  bites  it.  Mr.  Nicol  has  likewise  described  to  me  two 
cases  of  insane  patients,  whose  lips  are  retracted  during 
paroxysms  of  rage. 


244  ANGER.  Chap.  X 

Dr.  Maudsley,  after  detailing  various  strange  animal- 
like traits  in  idiots,  asks  whether  these  are  not  due  to 
the  reappearance  of  primitive  instincts — "  a  faint  echo 
from  a  far-distant  past,  testifying  to  a  kinship  which 
man  has  almost  outgrown."  He  adds,  that  as  every 
human  hrain  passes,  in  the  course  of  its  development, 
through  the  same  stages  as  those  occurring  in  the  lower 
vertebrate  animals,  and  as  the  brain  of  an  idiot  is  in  an 
arrested  condition,  we  may  presume  that  it  "  will  mani- 
fest its  most  primitive  functions,  and  no  higher  func- 
tions." Dr.  Maudsley  thinks  that  the  same  view  may 
be  extended  to  the  brain  in  its  degenerated  condition 
in  some  insane  patients;  and  asks,  whence  come  "the 
savage  snarl,  the  destructive  disposition,  the  obscene  lan- 
guage, the  wild  howl,  the  offensive  habits,  displayed  by 
some  of  the  insane?  Why  should  a  human  being,  de- 
prived of  his  reason,  ever  become  so  brutal  in  character, 
as  some  do,  unless  he  has  the  brute  nature  within 
him?"^^  This  question  must,  as  it  would  appear,  be 
answered  in  the  affirmative. 

Aug er^  Indignation. — These  states  of  the  mind  differ 
from  rage  only  in  degree,  and  there  is  no  marked  dis- 
tinction in  their  characteristic  signs.  Under  moderate 
anger  the  action  of  the  heart  is  a  little  increased,  the 
colour  heightened,  and  the  eyes  become  bright.  The 
respiration  is  likewise  a  little  hurried;  and  as  all  the 
muscles  serving  for  this  function  act  in  association,  the 
wings  of  the  nostrils  are  somewhat  raised  to  allow  of  a 
free  indraught  of  air;  and  this  is  a  highly  characteristic 
sign  of  indignation.  The  mouth  is  commonly  com- 
pressed, and  there  is  almost  always  a  frown  on  the  brow. 
Instead  of  the  frantic  gestures  of  extreme  rage,  an  in- 
dignant man  unconsciously  throws  himself  into  an  atti- 

"  ♦  Body  and  Mind,'  1870,  pp.  51-53. 


Chap.X*  anger.  245 

tude  ready  for  attacking  or  striking  his  enemy,  whom 
he  will  perhaps  scan  from  head  to  foot  in  defiance. 
He  carries  his  head  erect,  with  his  chest  well  expand- 
ed, and  the  feet  planted  firmly  on  the  ground.  He 
holds  his  arms  in  various  positions,  with  one  or 
both  elbows  squared,  or  with  the  arms  rigidly  sus- 
pended by  his  sides.  With  Europeans  the  fists  are  com- 
monly clenched.^^  The  figures  1  and  2  in  Plate  VI. 
are  fairly  good  representations  of  men  simulating  indig- 
nation. Any  one  may  see  in  a  mirror,  if  he  will  vividly 
imagine  that  he  has  been  insulted  and  demands  an 
explanation  in  an  angry  tone  of  voice,  that  he  suddenly 
and  unconsciously  throws  himself  into  some  such  at- 
titude. 

Eage,  anger,  and  indignation  are  exhibited  in  nearly 
the  same  manner  throughout  the  world;  and  the  fol- 
lowing descriptions  may  be  worth  giving  as  evidence  of 
this,  and  as  illustrations  of  some  of  the  foregoing  re- 
marks. There  is,  however,  an  exception  with  respect  to 
clenching  the  fists,  which  seems  confined  chiefly  to  the 
men  who  fight  with  their  fists.  With  the  Australians 
only  one  of  my  informants  has  seen  the  fists  clenched. 
All  agree  about  the  body  being  held  erect;  and  all,  with 
two  exceptions,  state  that  the  brows  are  heavily  con- 
tracted. Some  of  them  allude  to  the  firmly-compressed 
mouth,  the  distended  nostrils,  and  flashing  eyes.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Taplin,  rage,  with  the  Australians, 
is  expressed  by  the  lips  being  protruded,  the  eyes  being 
widely  open;  and  in  the  case  of  the  women  by  their  danc- 
ing about  and  casting  dust  into  the  air.     Another  ob- 

"  Le  Brun,  in  his  well-known  '  Conference  sur  I'Expres- 
sion  '  ('  La  Physionomie,  par  Lavater,'  edit,  of  1820,  vol.  ix. 
p.  268),  remarks  that  anger  is  expressed  by  the  clenching- 
of  the  fists.  See,  to  the  same  effect,  Hnschke,  '  Mimices 
et  Physiognomices,  Fragmentum  Physiologicum,'  1824,  p. 
20.    Also  Sir  C.  Bell,  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  219. 


24e  ANGER.  Chap.  X. 

server  speaks  of  the  native  men,  when  enraged,  throwing 
their  arms  wildly  about. 

I  have  received  similar  accounts,  except  as  to  the 
clenching  of  the  fists,  in  regard  to  the  Malays  of  the 
Malacca  peninsula,  the  Abyssinians,  and  the  natives  of 
South  Africa.  So  it  is  with  the  Dakota  Indians  of  North 
America;  and,  according  to  Mr.  Matthews,  they  then 
hold  their  heads  erect,  frown,  and  often  stalk  away  with 
long  strides.  Mr.  Bridges  states  that  the  Fuegians,  when 
enraged,  frequently  stamp  on  the  ground,  walk  distract- 
edly about,  sometimes  cry  and  grow  pale.  The  Eev.  Mr. 
Stack  watched  a  New  Zealand  man  and  woman  quarrel- 
ling, and  made  the  following  entry  in  his  note-book: 
"  Eyes  dilated,  body  swayed  violently  backwards  and  for- 
wards, head  inclined  forwards,  fists  clenched,  now  thrown 
behind  the  body,  now  directed  towards  each  other's 
faces."  Mr.  Swinhoe  says  that  my  description  agrees 
with  what  he  has  seen  of  the  Chinese,  excepting  that  an 
angry  man  generally  inclines  his  body  towards  his  an- 
tagonist, and  pointing  at  him,  pours  forth  a  volley  of 

abuse. 

Lastly,  with  respect  to  the  natives  of  India,  Mr.  J. 
Scott  has  sent  me  a  full  description  of  their  gestures 
and  expression  when  enraged.  Two  low-caste  Bengalees 
disputed  about  a  loan.  At  first  they  were  calm,  but  soon 
grew  furious  and  poured  forth  the  grossest  abuse  on  each 
other's  relations  and  progenitors  for  many  generations 
past.  Their  gestures  were  very  different  from  those  of 
Europeans;  for  though  their  chests  were  expanded  and 
shoulders  squared,  their  arms  remained  rigidly  sus- 
pended, with  the  elbows  turned  inwards  and  the  hands 
alternately  clenched  and  opened.  Their  shoulders  were 
often  raised  high,  and  then  again  lowered.  They  looked 
fiercely  at  each  other  from  under  their  lowered  and 
strongly  wrinkled  brows,  and  their  protruded  lips  were 


Chap.  X.  SNEERING  AND  DEFIANCE.  247 

firmly  closed.  They  approached  each  other,  with  heads 
and  necks  stretched  forwards,  and  pushed,  scratched, 
and  grasped  at  each  other.  This  protrusion  of  the  head 
and  body  seems  a  common  gesture  with  the  enraged; 
and  I  have  noticed  it  with  degraded  English  women 
whilst  quarrelling  violently  in  the  streets.  In  such  cases 
it  may  be  presumed  that  neither  party  expects  to  receive 
a  blow  from  the  other. 

A  Bengalee  employed  in  the  Botanic  Gardens  was 
accused,  in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Scott,  by  the  native 
overseer  of  having  stolen  a  valuable  plant.  He  listened 
silently  and  scornfully  to  the  accusation;  his  attitude 
erect,  chest  expanded,  mouth  closed,  lips  protruding, 
eyes  firmly  set  and  penetrating.  He  then  defiantly 
maintained  his  innocence,  with  upraised  and  clenched 
hands,  his  head  being  now  pushed  forwards,  with  the 
eyes  widely  open  and  eyebrows  raised.  Mr.  Scott  also 
watched  two  Mechis,  in  Sikhim,  quarrelling  about  their 
share  of  payment.  They  soon  got  into  a  furious  pas- 
sion, and  then  their  bodies  became  less  erect,  with  their 
heads  pushed  forwards;  they  made  grimaces  at  each 
other;  their  shoulders  were  raised;  their  arms  rigidly 
bent  inwards  at  the  elbows,  and  their  hands  spasmodic- 
ally closed,  but  not  properly  clenched.  They  continually 
approached  and  retreated  from  each  other,  and  often 
raised  their  arms  as  if  to  strike,  but  their  hands  were 
open,  and  no  blow  was  given.  Mr.  Scott  made  similar 
observations  on  the  Lepchas  whom  he  often  saw  quar- 
lelling,  and  he  noticed  that  they  kept  their  arms  rigid 
and  almost  parallel  to  their  bodies,  with  the  hands  pushed 
somewhat  backwards  and  partially  closed,  but  not 
clenched. 

Sneering^  Defiance :  Uncovering  the  canine  tooth  on 
one  side. — The  expression  which  I  wish  here  to  consider 


248  SNEERING  AND  DEFIANCE.  Chap.  X. 

differs  but  little  from  that  already  described,  when  the 
lips  are  retracted  and  the  grinning  teeth  exposed,  '^hp 
difference  consists  solely  in  the  upper  lip  being  retrac 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  canine  tooth  on  one  side  of 
the  face  alone  is  shown;  the  face  itself  being  generally 
a  little  upturned  and  half  averted  from  the  person  caus- 
ing offence.  The  other  signs  of  rage  are  not  necessarily 
present.  This  expression  may  occasionalh^  be  observed 
in  a  person  who  sneers  at  or  defies  another,  though  there 
may  be  no  real  anger;  as  when  any  one  is  playfully  ac- 
cused of  some  fault,  and  answers,  "  I  scorn  the  imputa- 
tion." The  expression  is  not  a  common  one,  but  I  have 
seen  it  exhibited  with  perfect  distinctness  by  a  lady 
who  was  being  quizzed  by  another  person.  It  was  de- 
scribed by  Parsons  as  long  ago  as  1746,  with  an  engrav- 
ing, showing  the  uncovered  canine  on  one  side.^*  Mr. 
Rej lander,  without  my  having  made  any  allusion  to  the 
subject,  asked  me  whether  I  had  ever  noticed  this  ex- 
pression, as  he  had  been  much  struck  by  it.  He  has 
photographed  for  me  (Plate  IV.  fig  1)  a  lady,  who  some- 
times unintentionally  displays  the  canine  on  one  side, 
and  who  can  do  so  voluntarily  with  unusual  distinctness. 
The  expression  of  a  half-playful  sneer  graduates  into 
one  of  great  ferocity  when,  together  with  a  heavily 
frowning  brow  and  fierce  eye,  the  canine  tooth  is  exposed. 
A  Bengalee  boy  was  accused  before  Mr.  Scott  of  some 
misdeed.  The  delinquent  did  not  dare  to  give  vent  to 
his  wrath  in  words,  but  it  was  plainly  shown  on  his 
countenance,  sometimes  by  a  defiant  frown,  and  some- 
times "  by  a  thoroughly  canine  snarl."  When  this  was 
exhibited,  '^  the  corner  of  the  lip  over  the  eye-tooth, 
which  happened  in  this  case  to  be  large  and  projecting,. 
was  raised  on  the  side  of  his  accuser,  a  strong  frown 

"  Transact.  Philosoph.  Soc,  Appendix,  1746,  p.  65. 


Chap.  X.  SNEERING  AND  DEFIANCE.  249 

being  still  retained  on  the  brow."  Sir  C.  Bell  states  ^^ 
that  the  actor  Cooke  could  express  the  most  determined 
hate  "  when  with  the  oblique  cast  of  his  eyes  he  drew  up 
the  outer  part  of  the  upper  lip,  and  discovered  a  sharp 
angular  tooth." 

The  uncovering  of  the  canine  tooth  is  the  result  of  a 
double  movement.  The  angle  or  corner  of  the  mouth 
is  drawn  a  little  backwards,  and  at  the  same  time  a  mus- 
cle which  runs  parallel  to  and  near  the  nose  draws  up 
the  outer  part  of  the  upper  lip,  and  exposes  the  canine 
on  this  side  of  the  face.  The  contraction  of  this  mus- 
cle makes  a  distinct  furrow  on  the  cheek,  and  produces 
strong  wrinkles  under  the  eye,  especially  at  its  inner 
corner.  The  action  is  the  same  as  that  of  a  snarling  dog; 
and  a  dog  when  pretending  to  fight  often  draws  up  the 
lip  on  one  side  alone,  namely  that  facing  his  antagonist. 
Our  word  sneer  is  in  fact  the  same  as  snarly  which  was 
originally  snar,  the  I  "  being  merely  an  element  imply- 
ing continuance  of  action."  ^® 

I  suspect  that  we  see  a  trace  of  this  same  expression 
in  what  is  called  a  derisive  or  sardonic  smile.  The  lips 
are  then  kept  joined  or  almost  joined,  but  one  corner 
of  the  mouth  is  retracted  on  the  side  towards  the  de- 
rided person;  and  this  drawing  back  of  the  corner  is 
part  of  a  true  sneer.  Although  some  persons  smile 
more  on  one  side  of  their  face  than  on  the  other,  it  is 
not  easy  to  understand  why  in  cases  of  derision  the 
smile,  if  a  real  one,  should  so  commonly  be  confined  to 
one  side.  I  have  also  on  these  occasions  noticed  a  slight 
twitching  of  the  muscle  which  draws  up  the  outer  part 


"  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  136.  Sir  C.  Bell  calls  (p. 
131)  the  muscles  which  uncover  the  canines  the  snarling 
muscles. 

"   Hensleig-h  Wedgwood,   '  Dictionary   of   English   Ety- 
mology,' 1865,  vol.  iii.  pp.  240,  243. 
17 


250  SNEERING  AND  DEFIANCE.  Chap.  X. 

of  the  upper  lip;  and  this  movement,  if  fully  carried 
out,  would  have  uncovered  the  canine,  and  would  have 
produced  a  true  sneer. 

Mr.  Bulmer,  an  Australian  missionary  in  a  remote 
part  of  Gipps'  Land,  says,  in  answer  to  my  query  about 
the  uncovering  of  the  canine  on  one  side,  "  I  find  that 
the  natives  in  snarling  at  each  other  speak  with  the 
teeth  closed,  the  upper  lip  drawn  to  one  side,  and  a 
general  angry  expression  of  face;  but  they  look  direct 
at  the  person  addressed.''  Three  other  observers  in  Aus- 
tralia, one  in  Abyssinia,  and  one  in  China,  answer  my 
query  on  this  head  in  the  affirmative;  but  as  the  ex- 
pression is  rare,  and  as  they  enter  into  no  details,  I  am 
afraid  of  implicitly  trusting  them.  It  is,  however,  by 
no  means  improbable  that  this  animal-like  expression 
may  be  more  common  with  savages  than  with  civilized 
races.  Mr.  Geach  is  an  observer  who  may  be  fully 
trusted,  and  he  has  observed  it  on  one  occasion  in  a  Malay 
in  the  interior  of  Malacca.  The  Rev.  S.  0.  Glenie  an- 
swers, "We  have  observed  this  expression  with  the 
natives  of  Ceylon,  but  not  often."  Lastly,  in  North 
America,  Dr.  Rothrock  has  seen  it  with  some  wild  In- 
dians, and  often  in  a  tribe  adjoining  the  Atnahs. 

Although  the  upper  lip  is  certainly  sometimes  raised 
on  one  side  alone  in  sneering  at  or  def}dng  any  one,  I 
do  not  know  that  this  is  always  the  case,  for  the  face 
is  commonly  half  averted,  and  the  expression  is  often 
momentary.  The  movement  being  confined  to  one  side 
may  not  be  an  essential  part  of  the  expression,  but  may 
depend  on  the  proper  muscles  being  incapable  of  move- 
ment excepting  on  one  side.  I  asked  four  persons  to 
endeavour  to  act  voluntarily  in  this  manner;  two  could 
expose  the  canine  only  on  the  left  side,  one  only  on  the 
right  side,  and  the  fourth  on  neither  side.  Neverthe- 
less it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  these  same  persons, 


Chap.  X.  SNEERING  AND  DEFIANCE.  251 

if  defying  any  one  in  earnest,  would  not  unconsciously 
have  uncovered  their  canine  tooth  on  the  side,  which- 
ever it  might  be,  towards  the  offender.  For  we  have 
seen  that  some  persons  cannot  voluntarily  make  their 
eyebrows  oblique,  yet  instantly  act  in  this  manner  when 
affected  by  any  real,  although  most  trifling,  cause  of  dis- 
tress. The  power  of  voluntarily  uncovering  the  canine 
on  one  side  of  the  face  being  thus  often  wholly  lost, 
indicates  that  it  is  a  rarely  used  and  almost  abortive 
action.  It  is  indeed  a  surprising  fact  that  man  should 
possess  the  power,  or  should  exhibit  any  tendency  to  its 
use;  for  Mr.  Sutton  has  never  noticed  a  snarling  action 
in  our  nearest  allies,  namely,  the  monkeys  in  the  Zoologi- 
cal Gardens,  and  he  is  positive  that  the  baboons,  though 
furnished  with  great  canines,  never  act  thus,  but  un- 
cover all  their  teeth  when  feeling  savage  and  ready  for 
an  attack.  Whether  the  adult  anthropomorphous  apes, 
in  the  males  of  whom  the  canines  are  much  larger  than 
in  the  females,  uncover  them  when  prepared  to  fight, 
is  not  known. 

The  expression  here  considered,  whether  that  of  a 
playful  sneer  or  ferocious  snarl,  is  one  of  the  most  curi- 
ous which  occurs  in  man.  It  reveals  his  animal  descent; 
for  no  one,  even  if  rolling  on  the  ground  in  a  deadly  grap- 
ple with  an  enemy,  and  attempting  to  bite  him,  would 
try  to  use  his  canine  teeth  more  than  his  other  teeth. 
"We  may  readily  believe  from  our  affinity  to  the  anthropo- 
morphous apes  that  our  male  semi-human  progenitors 
possessed  great  canine  teeth,  and  men  are  now  occasion- 
ally born  having  them  of  unusually  large  size,  with  inter- 
spaces in  the  opposite  jaw  for  their  reception.^ '^  We  may 
further  suspect,  notwithstanding  that  we  have  no  sup- 
port from  analogy,  that  our  semi-human  progenitors  un- 

"  '  The  Descent  of  Man,'  1871,  vol.  i.  p.  126. 


SNEERING  AND  DEFIANCE.  Chap.  X. 

covered  their  canine  teeth  when  prepared  for  battle,  as 
we  still  do  when  f eehng  ferocious,  or  when  merely  sneer- 
ing at  or  defying  some  one,  without  any  intention  of 
making  a  real  attack  with  our  teeth. 


Chap.  XI.  CONTEMPT.  263 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Disdain — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt — Pride,  etc. 
— Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation  and 
Negation. 

Contempt,  scorn  and  disdain,  variously  expressed — De- 
risive smile — Gestures  expressive  of  contempt — Disgust 
— Guilt,  deceit,  pride,  &c. — Helplessness  or  impotence 
■ — Patience — Obstinacy — Shrug-ging  the  shoulders  com- 
mon to  most  of  the  races  of  man — Signs  of  affirmation 
and  negation. 

Scorn  and  disdain  can  hardly  be  distinguished  from 
contempt,  excepting  that  they  imply  a  rather  more  angry 
frame  of  mind.  Nor  can  they  be  clearly  distinguished 
from  the  feelings  discussed  in  the  last  chapter  under 
the  terms  of  sneering  and  defiance.  Disgust  is  a  sensa- 
tion rather  more  distinct  in  its  nature,  and  refers  to 
something  revolting,  primarily  in  relation  to  the  sense 
of  taste,  as  actually  perceived  or  vividly  imagined;  and 
secondarily  to  anything  which  causes  a  similar  feeling, 
through  the  sense  of  smell,  touch,  and  even  of  eyesight. 
Nevertheless,  extreme  contempt,  or  as  it  is  often  called 
loathing  contempt,  hardly  differs  from  disgust.  These 
several  conditions  of  the  mind  are,  therefore,  nearly  re- 
lated; and  each  of  them  may  be  exhibited  in  many  dif- 
ferent ways.  Some  writers  have  insisted  chiefly  on  one 
mode  of  expression,  and  others  on  a  different  mode. 


254  CONTEMPT.  Chap.  XL 

From  this  circumstance  M.  Lemoine  has  argued  ^  that 
their  descriptions  are  not  trustworthy.  But  we  shall 
immediately  see  that  it  is  natural  that  the  feelings  which 
we  have  here  to  consider  should  be  expressed  in  many 
different  ways,  inasmuch  as  various  habitual  actions 
serve  equally  well,  through  the  principle  of  association, 
for  their  expression. 

Scorn  and  disdain,  as  well  as  sneering  and  defiance, 
may  be  displayed  by  a  slight  uncovering  of  the  canine 
tooth  on  one  side  of  the  face;  and  this  movement  ap- 
pears to  graduate  into  one  closely  like  a  smile.  Or  the 
smile  or  laugh  may  be  real,  although  one  of  derision; 
and  this  implies  that  the  offender  is  so  insignificant  that 
he  excites  only  amusement;  but  the  amusement  is  gen- 
erally a  pretence.  Gaika  in  his  answers  to  my  queries 
remarks,  that  contempt  is  commonly  shown  by  his  coun- 
trymen, the  Kafirs,  by  smiling;  and  the  Eajah  Brooke 
makes  the  same  observation  with  respect  to  the  D3"aks 
of  Borneo.  As  laughter  is  primarily  the  expression  of 
simple  joy,  very  young  children  do  not,  I  believe,  ever 
laugh  in  derision. 

The  partial  closure  of  the  eyelids,  as  Duchenne  -  in- 
sists, or  the  turning  away  of  the  eyes  or  of  the  whole 
body,  are  likewise  highly  expressive  of  disdain.  These 
actions  seem  to  declare  that  the  despised  person  is  not 
worth  looking  at,  or  is  disagreeable  to  behold.  The  ac- 
companying photograph  (Plate  Y.  fig.  1)  by  Mr.  Eej- 
lander,  shows  this  form  of  disdain.  It  represents  a  young 
lady,  who  is  supposed  to  be  tearing  up  the  photograph 
of  a  despised  lover. 

The  most  common  method  of  expressing  contempt  is 


^  '  De  la  Physionomie  et  la  Parole,'  1865,  p.  89. 
'  '  Physionomie  Humaine,'  Album,  Leg-ende  viii.  p.   35. 
Gratiolet  also  speaks  (De  la  Phys.  1865,  p.  52)  of  the  turn- 
ing away  of  the  eyes  and  body. 


Chap.  XI.  CONTEMPT.  255 

by  movements  about  the  nose,  or  round  the  mouth;  but 
the  latter  movements,  when  strongly  pronounced,  indi- 
cate disgust.  The  nose  may  be  slightly  turned  up,  which 
apparently  follows  from  the  turning  up  of  the  upper 
lip;  or  the  movement  may  be  abbreviated  into  the  mere 
wrinkling  of  the  nose.  The  nose  is  often  slightly  con- 
tracted, so  as  partly  to  close  the  passage;  ^  and  this  is 
commonly  accompanied  by  a  slight  snort  or  expiration. 
All  these  actions  are  the  same  with  those  which  we  em- 
ploy when  we  perceive  an  offensive  odour,  and  wish  to 
exclude  or  expel  it.  In  extreme  cases,  as  Dr.  Piderit 
remarks,*  we  protrude  and  raise  both  lips,  or  the  upper 
lip  alone,  so  as  to  close  the  nostrils  as  by  a  valve,  the 
nose  being  thus  turned  up.  We  seem  thus  to  say  to  the 
despised  person  that  he  smells  offensively,^  in  nearly 
the  same  manner  as  we  express  to  him  by  half -closing  our 
eyelids,  or  turning  away  our  faces,  that  he  is  not  worth 
looking  at.  It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed  that  such 
ideas  actually  pass  through  the  mind  when  we  exhibit 
our  contempt;  but  as  whenever  we  have  perceived  a  dis- 


'  Dr.  W.  Og-le,  in  an  interesting  paper  on  the  Sense  of 
Smell  (' Medico-Chirurg-ical  Transactions,'  vol.  liii.  p.  268), 
shows  that  when  we  wish  to  smell  carefully,  instead  of 
taking"  one  deep  nasal  inspiration,  we  draw  in  the  air  by 
a  succession  of  rapid  short  sniffs.  If  "  the  nostrils  be 
■w^atched  during-  this  process,  it  will  be  seen  that,  so  far 
from  dilating,  they  actually  contract  at  each  sniff.  The 
contraction  does  not  include  the  whole  anterior  opening", 
but  only  the  posterior  portion."  He  then  explains  the 
cause  of  this  movement.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  we  wish 
to  exclude  anj^  odour,  the  contraction,  I  presume,  affects 
only  the  anterior  part  of  the  nostrils. 

*  '  Mimik  und  Physiognomik,'  ss.  84,  93.  Gratiolet  (ibid, 
p.  155)  takes  nearly  the  same  view  with  Dr.  Piderit  respect- 
ing the  expression  of  contempt  and  disgust. 

*  Scorn  implies  a  strong-  form  of  contempt;  and  one  of 
the  roots  of  the  word  '  scorn  '  means,  according  to  Mr. 
Wedgwood  (Diet,  of  Eng-lish  Etymolog-y,  vol.  iii.  p.  125), 
ordure  or  dirt.  A  person  who  is  scorned  is  treated  like 
dirt. 


256  DISGUST.  Chap.  XL 

agreeable  odour  or  seen  a  disagreeable  sight,  actions  of 
this  kind  have  been  performed,  they  have  become  habit- 
ual or  fixed,  and  are  now  employed  under  any  analogous 
state  of  mind. 

Various  odd  little  gestures  likewise  indicate  con- 
tempt; for  instance,  snappmg  one's  fingers.  This,  as 
Mr.  Tjlor  remarks,®  "  is  not  very  intelligible  as  we  gen- 
erally see  it;  but  when  we  notice  that  the  same  sign 
made  quite  gently,  as  if  rolling  some  tiny  object  away 
between  the  finger  and  thumb,  or  the  sign  of  flipping 
it  away  with  the  thumb-nail  and  forefinger,  are  usual 
and  well-understood  deaf-and-dumb  gestures,  denoting 
anything  tiny,  insignificant,  contemptible,  it  seems  as 
though  we  had  exaggerated  and  conventionalized  a  per- 
fectly natural  action,  so  as  to  lose  sight  of  its  original 
meaning.  There  is  a  curious  mention  of  this  gesture 
by  Strabo."  Mr.  Washington  Matthews  informs  me 
that,  with  the  Dakota  Indians  of  North  America,  con- 
tempt is  shown  not  only  by  movements  of  the  face,  such 
as  those  above  described,  but  "  conventionally,  by  the 
hand  being  closed  and  held  near  the  breast,  then,  as  the 
forearm  is  suddenly  extended,  the  hand  is  opened  and 
the  fingers  separated  from  each  other.  If  the  person  at 
whose  expense  the  sign  is  made  is  present,  the  hand  is 
moved  towards  him,  and  the  head  sometimes  averted 
from  him."  This  sudden  extension  and  opening  of  the 
hand  perhaps  indicates  the  dropping  or  throwing  away 
a  valueless  object. 

The  term  '  disgust,'  in  its  simplest  sense,  means 
something  offensive  to  the  taste.  It  is  curious  how  read- 
ily this  feeling  is  excited  by  anything  unusual  in  the 
appearance,  odour,  or  nature  of  our  food.  In  Tierra  del 
Fuego  a  native  touched  with  his  finger  some  cold  pre- 

•  ♦  Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  45. 


Chap.  XI.  DISGUST.  257 

served  meat  which  I  was  eating  at  our  bivouac,  and  plain- 
ly showed  utter  disgust  at  its  softness;  whilst  I  felt 
utter  disgust  at  my  food  being  touched  by  a  naked  sav- 
age, though  his  hands  did  not  appear  dirty.  A  smear 
of  soup  on  a  man's  beard  looks  disgusting,  though  there 
is  of  course  nothing  disgusting  in  the  soup  itself.  I  pre- 
sume that  this  follows  from  the  strong  association  in 
our  minds  between  the  sight  of  food,  however  circum- 
stanced, and  the  idea  of  eating  it. 

As  the  sensation  of  disgust  primarily  arises  in  con- 
nection with  the  act  of  eating  or  tasting,  it  is  natural 
that  its  expression  should  consist  chiefly  in  movements 
round  the  mouth.  But  as  disgust  also  causes  annoyance, 
it  is  generally  accompanied  by  a  frown,  and  often  by 
gestures  as  if  to  push  away  or  to  guard  oneself  against 
the  offensive  object.  In  the  two  photographs  (figs.  2 
and  3,  on  Plate  V.)  Mr.  Rejlander  has  simulated  this 
expression  with  some  success.  With  respect  to  the  face, 
moderate  disgust  is  exhibited  in  various  ways;  by  the 
mouth  being  widely  opened,  as  if  to  let  an  offensive 
morsel  drop  out;  by  spitting;  by  blowing  out  of  the  pro- 
truded lips;  or  by  a  sound  as  of  clearing  the  throat. 
Such  guttural  sounds  are  written  ach  or  ugh  ;  and  their 
utterance  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  shudder,  the 
arms  being  pressed  close  to  the  sides  and  the  shoulders 
raised  in  the  same  manner  as  when  horror  is  experienced.'^ 
Extreme  disgust  is  expressed  by  movements  round  the 
mouth  identical  with  those  preparatory  to  the  act  of 
vomiting.  The  mouth  is  opened  widely,  with  the  upper 
lip  strongly  retracted,  which  wrinkles  the  sides  of  the 
nose,  and  with  the  lower  lip  protruded  and  everted  as 
much  as  possible.     This  latter  movement  requires  the 

^  See,  to  this  effect,  Mr.  Hensleig-h  Wedg-wood's  Intro- 
duction to  the  '  Dictionary  of  English  Etymology,'  2nd 
edit.  1872,  p.  xxxvii. 


258  DISGUST.  Chap.  XL 

contraction  of  the  muscles  which  draw  downwards  the 
corners  of  the  mouth. ^ 

It  is  remarkable  how  readily  and  instantly  retching^ 
or  actual  vomiting  is  induced  in  some  persons  by  the 
mere  idea  of  having  partaken  of  any  unusual  food,  as 
of  an  animal  which  is  not  commonly  eaten;  although 
there  is  nothing  in  such  food  to  cause  the  stomach  to 
reject  it.  When  vomiting  results,  as  a  reflex  action, 
from  some  real  cause — as  from  too  rich  food,  or  tainted 
meat,  or  from  an  emetic — it  does  not  ensue  immediately, 
but  generally  after  a  considerable  interval  of  time. 
Therefore,  to  account  for  retching  or  vomiting  being  so 
quickly  and  easily  excited  by  a  mere  idea,  the  suspicion 
arises  that  our  progenitors  must  formerly  have  had  the 
power  (like  that  possessed  by  ruminants  and  some  other 
animals)  of  voluntarily  rejecting  food  which  disagreed 
with  them,  or  which  they  thought  would  disagree  with 
them;  and  now,  though  this  power  has  been  lost,  as  far 
as  the  will  is  concerned,  it  is  called  into  involuntary 
action,  through  the  force  of  a  formerly  well-established 
habit,  whenever  the  mind  revolts  at  the  idea  of  having 
partaken  of  any  kind  of  food,  or  at  anything  disgusting. 
This  suspicion  receives  support  from  the  fact,  of  which 
I  am  assured  by  Mr.  Sutton,  that  the  monkeys  in  the 
Zoological  Gardens  often  vomit  whilst  in  perfect  health, 
which  looks  as  if  the  act  were  voluntary.  We  can  see 
that  as  man  is  able  to  communicate  by  language  to  his 
children  and  others,  the  knowledge  of  the  kinds  of  food 
to  be  avoided,  he  would  have  little  occasion  to  use  the 
faculty  of  voluntary  rejection;  so  that  this  power  would 
tend  to  be  lost  through  disuse. 

'  Duchenne  believes  that  in  the  eversion  of  the  lower  lip, 
the  corners  are  drawn  downwards  by  the  depressores  anguli 
oris.  Henle  (Handbueh  d.  Anat.  des  Menschen,  1858,  B.  i.  s. 
151)  concludes  that  this  is  effected  by  the  musculus  quadra- 
tu8  menti. 


Chap.  XI.  DISGUST.  259 

As  the  sense  of  smell  is  so  intimately  connected  with 
that  of  taste,  it  is  not  surprising  that  an  excessively  bad 
odour  should  excite  retching  or  vomiting  in  some  per- 
sons, quite  as  readily  as  the  thought  of  revolting  food 
does;  and  that,  as  a  further  consequence,  a  moderately 
offensive  odour  should  cause  the  various  expressive  move- 
ments of  disgust.  The  tendency  to  retch  from  a  fetid 
odour  is  immediately  strengthened  in  a  curious  manner 
by  some  degree  of  habit,  though  soon  lost  by  longer 
familiarity  with  the  cause  of  offence  and  by  voluntary  re- 
straint. For  instance,  I  wished  to  clean  the  skeleton 
of  a  bird,  which  had  not  been  sufficiently  macerated, 
and  the  smell  made  my  servant  and  myself  (we  not  hav- 
ing had  much  experience  in  such  work)  retch  so  vio- 
lently, that  we  were  compelled  to  desist.  During  the 
previous  days  I  had  examined  some  other  skeletons, 
which  smelt  slightly;  yet  the  odour  did  not  in  the  least 
affect  me,  but,  subsequently  for  several  days,  whenever 
I  handled  these  same  skeletons,  they  made  me  retch. 

From  the  answers  received  from  my  correspondents 
it  appears  that  the  various  movements,  which  have  now 
been  described  as  expressing  contempt  and  disgust,  pre- 
vail throughout  a  large  part  of  the  world.  Dr.  Rothrock, 
for  instance,  answers  with  a  decided  affirmative  with 
respect  to  certain  wild  Indian  tribes  of  North  America. 
Crantz  says  that  when  a  Greenlander  denies  anything 
with  contempt  or  horror  he  turns  up  his  nose,  and  gives 
a  slight  sound  through  it.®  Mr.  Scott  has  sent  me  a 
graphic  description  of  the  face  of  a  young  Hindoo  at 
the  sight  of  castor-oil,  which  he  was  compelled  occa- 
sionally to  take.  Mr.  Scott  has  also  seen  the  same  ex- 
pression on  the  faces  of  high-caste  natives  who  have 


•  As  quoted  by  Tylor,  *  Primitive  Culture,'  1871,  vol.  1. 
p.  169. 


260 


DISGUST.  Chap.  XL 


approached  close  to  some  defiling  object.  Mr.  Bridges 
says  that  the  Fuegians  "  express  contempt  by  shooting 
out  the  lips  and  hissing  through  them,  and  by  turning 
up  the  nose."  The  tendency  either  to  snort  through 
the  nose,  or  to  make  a  noise  expressed  by  ugh  or  ach^  is 
noticed  by  several  of  my  correspondents. 

Spitting  seems  an  almost  universal  sign  of  contempt 
or  disgust;  and  spitting  obviously  represents  the  rejec- 
tion of  anything  offensive  from  the  mouth.  Shakspeare 
makes  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  say,  "  I  spit  at  him— call 
him  a  slanderous  coward  and  a  villain."  So,  again,  Fal- 
staff  says,  "  Tell  thee  what,  Hal,— if  I  tell  thee  a  lie, 
spit  in  my  face."  Leichhardt  remarks  that  the  Aus- 
tralians "  interrupted  their  speeches  by  spitting,  and  ut- 
tering a  noise  like  pooh!  pooh!  apparently  expressive  of 
their  disgust."  And  Captain  Burton  speaks  of  certain 
negroes  "spitting  with  disgust  upon  the  ground."  ^^ 
Captain  Speedy  informs  me  that  this  is  likewise  the  case 
with  the  Abyssinians.  Mr.  Geach  says  that  with  the 
Malays  of  Malacca  the  expression  of  disgust  "  answers 
to  spitting  from  the  mouth; "  and  with  the  Fuegians, 
according  to  Mr.  Bridges  "  to  spit  at  one  is  the  highest 
mark  of  contempt." 

I  never  saw  disgust  more  plainly  expressed  than  on 
the  face  of  one  (5f  my  infants  at  the  age  of  five  months, 
when,  for  the  first  time,  some  cold  water,  and  again  a 
month  afterwards,  when  a  piece  of  ripe  cherry  was  put 
into  his  mouth.  This  was  shown  by  the  lips  and  whole 
mouth  assuming  a  shape  w^hich  allowed  the  contents  to 
run  or  fall  quickly  out;  the  tongue  being  likewise  pro- 
truded. These  movements  were  accompanied  by  a  little 
shudder.    It  was  all  the  more  comical,  as  I  doubt  whether 


^®  Both  these   quotations   are   g-iven  by   Mr.   H.   Wedg- 
vood,  '  On  the  Origin  of  Language,'  1866,  p.  75. 


Chap.  XI.  PRIDE.  261 

the  child  felt  real  disgust — the  eyes  and  forehead  express- 
ing much  surprise  and  consideration.  The  protrusion 
of  the  tongue  in  letting  a  nasty  object  fall  out  of  the 
mouth,  may  explain  how  it  is  that  lolling  out  the  tongue 
universally  serves  as  a  sign  of  contempt  and  hatred.^^ 

We  have  now  seen  that  scorn,  disdain,  contempt,  and 
disgust  are  expressed  in  many  different  ways,  by  move- 
ments of  the  features,  and  by  various  gestures;  and  that 
these  are  the  same  throughout  the  world.  They  all  con- 
sist of  actions  representing  the  rejection  or  exclusion  of 
some  real  object  which  we  dislike  or  abhor,  but  which 
does  not  excite  in  us  certain  other  strong  emotions,  such 
as  rage  or  terror;  and  through  the  force  of  habit  and  as- 
sociation similar  actions  are  performed,  whenever  any 
analogous  sensation  arises  in  our  minds. 

Jealousy^  Envy,  Avarice,  Revenge,  Suspicion,  Deceit ^ 
Sly7iess,  Guilt,  Vayiity,  Conceit,  Amhitio7i,  Pride,  Hu- 
mility, <&c. — It  is  doubtful  whether  the  greater  number 
of  the  above  complex  states  of  mind  are  revealed  by  any 
fixed  expression,  sufficiently  distinct  to  be  described  or 
delineated.  When  Shakspeare  speaks  of  Envy  as  lean- 
faced,  or  Hack,  or  pale,  and  Jealousy  as  *'  the  green-eyed 
monster y  and  when  Spenser  describes  Suspicion  as 
'^foul,  ill-favoured,  and  grim,^^  they  must  have  felt  this 
difficulty.  Nevertheless,  the  above  feelings — at  least 
many  of  them — can  be  detected  by  the  eye;  for  instance, 
conceit;  but  we  are  often  guided  in  a  much  greater  de- 
gree than  we  suppose  by  our  previous  knowledge  of  the 
persons  or  circumstances. 

My  correspondents  almost  unanimously  answer  in 
the  affirmative  to  my  query,  whether  the  expression  of 

"  This  is  stated  to  be  the  case  by  Mr.  Tylor  (Early  Hist, 
of  Mankind,  2nd  edit.  1870,  p.  52) ;  and  he  adds,  "  it  is  not 
clear  why  this  should  be  so." 


262  PRIDE.  Chap.  XI. 

guilt  and  deceit  can  be  recognized  amongst  the  various 
races  of  man;  and  I  have  confidence  in  their  answers,  as 
they  generally  deny  that  jealousy  can  thus  be  recognized. 
In  the  cases  in  which  details  are  given,  the  eyes  are 
almost  always  referred  to.  The  guilty  man  is  said  to 
avoid  looking  at  his  accuser,  or  to  give  him  stolen  looks. 
The  eyes  are  said  "  to  be  turned  askant,"  or  "  to  waver 
from  side  to  side,"  or  "  the  eyelids  to  be  lowered  and 
partly  closed."  This  latter  remark  is  made  by  Mr. 
Hagenauer  with  respect  to  the  Australians,  and  by  Gaika 
with  respect  to  the  Kafirs.  The  restless  movements  of 
the  eyes  apparently  follow,  as  will  be  explained  when 
we  treat  of  blushing,  from  the  guilty  man  not  enduring 
to  meet  the  gaze  of  his  accuser.  I  may  add,  that  I  have 
observed  a  guilty  expression,  without  a  shade  of  fear,  in 
some  of  my  own  children  at  a  very  early  age.  In  one  in- 
stance the  expression  was  unmistakably  clear  in  a  child 
two  years  and  seven  months  old,  and  led  to  the  detec- 
tion of  his  little  crime.  It  was  shown,  as  I  record  in  my 
notes  made  at  the  time,  by  an  unnatural  brightness  in 
the  eyes,  and  by  an  odd,  affected  manner,  impossible  to 
describe. 

Slyness  is  also,  I  believe,  exhibited  chiefly  by  move- 
ments about  the  eyes;  for  these  are  less  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  will,  owing  to  the  force  of  long-continued 
habit,  than  are  the  movements  of  the  body.  ^Ir.  Her- 
bert Spencer  remarks,^-  "'  When  there  is  a  desire  to  see 
something  on  one  side  of  the  visual  field  without  being 
supposed  to  see  it,  the  tendency  is  to  check  the  con- 
spicuous movement  of  the  head,  and  to  make  the  re- 
quired adjustment  entirely  with  the  eyes;  which  are, 
therefore,  drawn  very  much  to  one  side.  Hence,  when 
the  eyes  are  turned  to  one  side,  while  the  face  is  not 

"  '  Principles  of  Psychology,'  2nd  edit.  1872,  p.  552. 


Chap.  XI.  HELPLESSNESS : 

turned  to  the  same  side,  we  get  the  natural  language  of 
what  is  called  slyness." 

Of  all  the  above-named  complex  emotions.  Pride,  per- 
haps, is  the  most  plainly  expressed.  A  proud  man  ex- 
hibits his  sense  of  superiority  over  others  by  holding 
his  head  and  body  erect.  He  is  haughty  (haut),  or  high, 
and  makes  himself  appear  as  large  as  possible;  so  that 
metaphorically  he  is  said  to  be  swollen  or  puffed  up  with 
pride.  A  peacock  or  a  turkey-cock  strutting  about  with 
puffed-up  feathers,  is  sometimes  said  to  be  an  emblem 
of  pride.^^  The  arrogant  man  looks  down  on  others, 
and  with  lowered  eyelids  hardly  condescends  to  see  them; 
or  he  may  show  his  contempt  by  slight  movements,  such 
as  those  before  described,  about  the  nostrils  or  lips. 
Hence  the  muscle  which  everts  the  lower  lip  has  been 
called  the  musculus  superbus.  In  some  photographs  of 
patients  aifected  by  a  monomania  of  pride,  sent  me  by 
Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  the  head  and  body  were  held  erect, 
and  the  mouth  firmly  closed.  This  latter  action,  ex- 
pressive of  decision,  follows,  I  presume,  from  the  proud 
man  feeling  perfect  self-confidence  in  himself.  The 
whole  expression  of  pride  stands  in  direct  antithesis  to 
that  of  humility;  so  that  nothing  need  here  be  said  of 
the  latter  state  of  mind. 

Helplessness^  Impotence:  Shrugging  the  shoulders, 
— When  a  man  wishes  to  show  that  he  cannot  do  some- 
thing, or  prevent  something  being  done,  he  often  raises 
with  a  quick  movement  both  shoulders.  At  the  same 
time,  if  the  whole  gesture  is  completed,  he  bends  his 
elbows  closely  inwards,  raises  his  open  hands,  turning 


"  Gratiolet  (De  la  Phys.  p.  351)  makes  this  remark,  and 
has  some  ^oort  observations  on  the  expression  of  pride. 
See  Sir  C.  Bell  ('  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  Ill)  on  the 
action  of  the  musculus  superbus. 


264  HELPLESSNESS :  Chap.  XL 

them  outwards,  with  the  fingers  separated.  The  head 
is  often  thrown  a  little  on  one  side;  the  eyebrows  are 
elevated,  and  tliis  causes  wrinkles  across  the  forehead. 
The  mouth  is  generally  opened.  I  may  mention,  in  order 
to  show  how  unconsciously  the  features  are  thus  acted 
on,  that  though  I  had  often  intentionally  shrugged  my 
shoulders  to  observe  how  my  arms  were  placed,  I  was 
not  at  all  aware  that  my  eyebrows  were  raised  and  mouth 
opened,  until  I  looked  at  myself  in  a  glass;  and  since 
then  I  have  noticed  the  same  movements  in  the  faces 
of  others.  In  the  accompanying  Plate  VI.,  figs.  3  and 
4,  Mr.  Eejlander  has  successfully  acted  the  gesture  of 
shrugging  the  shoulders. 

Englishmen  are  much  less  demonstrative  than  the 
men  of  most  other  European  nations,  and  they  shrug 
their  shoulders  far  less  frequently  and  energetically  than 
Frenchmen  or  Italians  do.  The  gesture  varies  in  all 
degrees  from  the  complex  movement,  just  described,  to 
only  a  momentary  and  scarcely  perceptible  raising  of 
both  shoulders;  or,  as  I  have  noticed  in  a  lady  sitting  in 
an  arm-chair,  to  the  mere  turning  slightly  outwards  of 
the  open  hands  with  separated  fingers.  I  have  never 
seen  very  young  English  children  shrug  their  shoulders, 
but  the  following  case  was  observed  with  care  by  a 
medical  professor  and  excellent  observer,  and  has  been 
communicated  to  me  by  him.  The  father  of  this  gen- 
tleman was  a  Parisian,  and  his  mother  a  Scotch  lady. 
His  wife  is  of  British  extraction  on  both  sides,  and  my 
informant  does  not  believe  that  she  ever  shrugged  her 
shoulders  in  her  life.  His  children  have  been  reared  in 
England,  and  the  nursemaid  is  a  thorough  English- 
woman, who  has  never  been  seen  to  shrug  her  shoulders. 
Now.  his  eldest  daughter  was  observed  to  shrug  her 
shoulders  at  the  age  of  between  sixteen  and  eighteen 
months;  her  mother  exclaiming  at  the  time,  "  Look  at 


Chap.  XI.        SHRUGGING  THE  SHOULDERS.  265 

the  little  French  girl  shrugging  her  shoulders!  "  At 
first  she  often  acted  thus,  sometimes  throwing  her  head 
a  little  backwards  and  on  one  side,  but  she  did  not,  as 
far  as  was  observed,  move  her  elbows  and  hands  in  the 
usual  manner.  The  habit  gradually  wore  away,  and 
now,  when  she  is  a  little  over  four  years  old,  she  is  never 
seen  to  act  thus.  The  father  is  told  that  he  sometimes 
shrugs  his  shoulders,  especially  when  arguing  with  any 
one;  but  it  is  extremely  improbable  that  his  daughter 
should  have  imitated  him  at  so  early  an  age;  for,  as  he 
remarks,  she  could  not  possibly  have  often  seen  this 
gesture  in  him.  Moreover,  if  the  habit  had  been  ac- 
quired through  imitation,  it  is  not  probable  that  it  would 
so  soon  have  been  spontaneously  discontinued  by  this 
child,  and,  as  we  shall  immediately  see,  by  a  second  child, 
though  the  father  still  lived  with  his  family.  This  little 
girl,  it  may  be  added,  resembles  her  Parisian  grand- 
father in  countenance  to  an  almost  absurd  degree.  She 
also  presents  another  and  very  curious  resemblance  to 
him,  namely,  by  practising  a  singular  trick.  When  she 
impatiently  wants  something,  she  holds  out  her  little 
hand,  and  rapidly  rubs  the  thumb  against  the  index 
and  middle  finger:  now  this  same  trick  was  frequently 
performed  under  the  same  circumstances  by  her  grand- 
father. 

This  gentleman's  second  daughter  also  shrugged  her 
shoulders  before  the  age  of  eighteen  months,  and  after- 
wards discontinued  the  habit.  It  is  of  course  possible 
that  she  may  have  imitated  her  elder  sister;  but  she 
continued  it  after  her  sister  had  lost  the  habit.  She  at 
first  resembled  her  Parisian  grandfather  in  a  less  degree 
than  did  her  sister  at  the  same  age,  but  now  in  a  greater 
degree.  She  likewise  practises  to  the  present  time  the 
peculiar  habit  of  rubbing  together,  when  impatient,  her 
thumb  and  two  of  her  fore-fingers. 
18 


266  HELPLESSNESS :  Chap.  XL 

In  this  latter  case  we  have  a  good  instance,  like  those 
given  in  a  former  chapter,  of  the  inheritance  of  a  trick 
or  gesture;  for  no  one,  I  presume,  will  attribute  to  mere 
coincidence  so  peculiar  a  habit  as  this,  which  was  com- 
mon to  the  grandfather  and  his  two  grandchildren  who 
had  never  seen  him. 

Considering  all  the  circumstances  with  reference  to 
these  children  shrugging  their  shoulders,  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  they  have  inherited  the  habit  from  their 
French  progenitors,  although  they  have  only  one  quar- 
ter French  blood  in  their  veins,  and  although  their 
grandfather  did  not  often  shrug  his  shoulders.  There 
is  nothing  very  unusual,  though  the  fact  is  interesting, 
in  these  children  having  gained  by  inheritance  a  habit 
during  early  youth,  and  then  discontinuing  it;  for  it  is 
of  frequent  occurrence  with  many  kinds  of  animals  that 
certain  characters  are  retained  for  a  period  by  the  young, 
and  are  then  lost. 

As  it  appeared  to  me  at  one  time  improbable  in  a 
high  degree  that  so  complex  a  gesture  as  shrugging  the 
shoulders,  together  with  the  accompanying  movements, 
should  be  innate,  I  was  anxious  to  ascertain  whether 
the  blind  and  deaf  Laura  Bridgman,  who  could  not  have 
learnt  the  habit  by  imitation,  practised  it.  And  I  have 
heard,  through  Dr.  Innes,  from  a  lady  who  has  lately 
had  charge  of  her,  that  she  does  shrug  her  shoulders,  turn 
in  her  elbows,  and  raise  her  eyebrows  in  the  same  manner 
as  other  people,  and  under  the  same  circumstances.  I 
was  also  anxious  to  learn  whether  this  gesture  was  prac- 
tised by  the  various  races  of  man.  especially  by  those 
who  never  have  had  much  intercourse  with  Europeans. 
'We  shall  see  that  they  act  in  this  manner;  but  it  appears 
that  the  gesture  is  sometimes  confined  to  merely  raising 
or  shrugging  the  shoulders,  without  the  other  move- 
ments. 


Chap.  XI.        SHRUGGING  THE  SHOULDERS.  267 

Mr.  Scott  has  frequently  seen  this  gesture  in  the 
Bengalees  and  Dhangars  (the  latter  constituting  a  dis- 
tinct race)  who  are  employed  in  the  Botanic  Garden  at 
Calcutta;  when,  for  instance,  they  have  declared  that 
they  could  not  do  some  work,  such  as  lifting  a  heavy 
weight.  He  ordered  a  Bengalee  to  climb  a  lofty  tree; 
but  the  man,  with  a  shrug  of  his  shoulders  and  a  lat- 
eral shake  of  his  head,  said  he  could  not.  Mr.  Scott 
knowing  that  the  man  was  lazy,  thought  he  could, 
and  insisted  on  his  trying.  His  face  now  became 
pale,  his  arms  dropped  to  his  sides,  his  mouth  and 
eyes  were  widely  opened,  and  again  surveying  the  tree, 
he  looked  askant  at  Mr.  Scott,  shrugged  his  shoul- 
ders, inverted  liis  elbows,  extended  his  open  hands, 
and  with  a  few  quick  lateral  shakes  of  the  head  de- 
clared his  inability.  Mr.  H.  Erskine  has  likewise  seen 
the  natives  of  India  shrugging  their  shoulders;  but 
he  has  never  seen  the  elbows  turned  so  much  in- 
wards as  with  us;  and  whilst  shrugging  their  shoulders 
they  sometimes  lay  their  uncrossed  hands  on  their 
breasts. 

With  the  wild  Malays  of  the  interior  of  Malacca,  and 
with  the  Bugis  (true  Malays,  though  speaking  a  different 
language),  Mr.  Geach  has  often  seen  this  gesture.  I 
presume  that  it  is  complete,  as,  in  answer  to  my  query 
descriptive  of  the  movements  of  the  shoulders,  arms, 
hands,  and  face,  Mr.  Geach  remarks,  "it  is  performed 
in  a  beautiful  style."  I  have  lost  an  extract  from  a 
scientific  voyage,  in  which  shrugging  the  shoulders  by 
some  natives  (Micronesians)  of  the  Caroline  Archipelago 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  was  well  described.  Capt.  Speedy 
informs  me  that  the  Abyssinians  shrug  their  shoulders, 
but  enters  into  no  details.  Mrs.  Asa  Gray  saw  an  Arab 
dragoman  in  Alexandria  acting  exactly  as  described  in 
my  query,  when  an  old  gentleman,  on  whom  he  attended, 


HELPLESSNESS:  Chap.  XL 

would  not  go  in  the  proper  direction  whicli  had  been 
pointed  out  to  him. 

Mr.  Washington  Matthews  says,  in  reference  to  the 
wild  Indian  tribes  of  the  western  parts  of  the  United 
States,  "  I  have  on  a  few  occasions  detected  men  using 
a  slight  apologetic  shrug,  but  the  rest  of  the  demonstra- 
tion which  you  describe  I  have  not  witnessed."  Fritz 
Miiller  informs  me  that  he  has  seen  the  negroes  in  Brazil 
shrugging  their  shoulders;  but  it  is  of  course  possible 
that  they  may  have  learnt  to  do  so  by  imitating  the  Por- 
tuguese. Mrs.  Barber  has  never  seen  this  gesture  with 
the  Kafirs  of  South  Africa;  and  Gaika,  judging  from  his 
answer,  did  not  even  understand  what  was  meant  by 
my  description.  Mr.  Swinhoe  is  also  doubtful  about 
the  Chinese;  but  he  has  seen  them,  under  the  circum- 
stances which  would  make  us  shrug  our  shoulders,  press 
their  right  elbow  against  their  side,  raise  their  eye- 
brows, lift  up  their  hand  with  the  palm  directed  to- 
wards the  person  addressed,  and  shake  it  from  right  to 
left.  Lastly,  with  respect  to  the  Australians,  four  of 
my  informants  answer  by  a  simple  negative,  and  one 
by  a  simple  affirmative.  Mr.  Bunnett,  who  has  had 
excellent  opportunities  for  observation  on  the  borders 
of  the  Colony  of  Victory,  also  answers  by  a  "yes," 
adding  that  the  gesture  is  performed  "  in  a  more  sub- 
dued and  less  demonstrative  manner  than  is  the  case 
with  civilized  nations."  This  circumstance  may  ac- 
count for  its  not  having  been  noticed  by  four  of  my  in- 
formants. 

These  statements,  relating  to  Europeans,  Hindoos, 
the  hill-tribes  of  India,  Malays,  ^Micronesians,  Abyssin- 
ians,  Arabs,  Negroes,  Indians  of  North  America,  and  ap- 
parently to  the  Australians — many  of  these  natives  hav- 
ing had  scarcely  any  intercourse  with  Europeans — are 
sufficient  to  show  that  shrugging  the  shoulders,  accom- 


Chap.  XI.        SHflUGGI^^G  THE  SHOULDERS,  269 

panied  in  some  cases  by  the  other  proper  movements,  is 
a  gesture  natural  to  mankind. 

This  gesture  implies  an  unintentional  or  unavoidable 
action  on  our  own  part,  or  one  that  we  cannot  perform; 
or  an  action  performed  by  another  person  which  we 
cannot  prevent.  It  accompanies  such  speeches  as,  "  It 
was  not  my  fault; "  "  It  is  impossible  for  me  to  grant 
this  favour; "  "  He  must  follow  his  own  course,  I  can- 
not stop  him."  Shrugging  the  shoulders  likewise  ex- 
presses patience,  or  the  absence  of  any  intention  to  re- 
sist. Hence  the  muscles  which  raise  the  shoulders  are 
sometimes  called,  as  I  have  been  informed  by  an  artist, 
"  the  patience  muscles.'^    Shylock  the  Jew,  says, 

"  Sig-nor  Antonio,  many  a  time  and  oft 
In  the  Rialto  have  you  rated  me 
About  my  monies  and  usances; 
Still  have  I  borne  it  with  a  patient  shrug".'* 

Merchant  of  Venice,  act  i.  so.  3. 

Sir  C.  Bell  has  given  ^*  a  life-like  figure  of  a  man, 
who  is  shrinking  back  from  some  terrible  danger,  and  is 
on  the  point  of  screaming  out  in  abject  terror.  He  is 
represented  with  his  shoulders  lifted  up  almost  to  his 
ears;  and  this  at  once  declares  that  there  is  no  thought 
of  resistance. 

As  shrugging  the  shoulders  generally  implies  "  I 
cannot  do  this  or  that,"  so  by  a  slight  change,  it  some- 
times implies  "  1  won't  do  it."  The  movement  then  ex- 
presses a  dogged  determination  not  to  act.  Olmsted 
describes  ^^  an  Indian  in  Texas  as  giving  a  great  shrug 
to  his  shoulders,  when  he  was  informed  that  a  party  of 
men  were  Germans  and  not  Americans,  thus  expressing 
that  he  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  them.    Sulky  and 


*  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  166. 
'  Journey  through  Texas,'  p.  352. 


270  HELPLESSNESS :  Chap.  XL 

obstinate  children  may  be  seen  with  both  their  shoulders 
raised  high  up;  but  this  movement  is  not  associated  with 
the  others  which  generally  accompany  a  true  shrug.  An 
excellent  observer  ^^  in  describing  a  young  man  who  was 
determined  not  to  yield  to  his  father^s  desire,  says,  "  He 
thrust  his  hands  deep  down  into  his  pockets,  and  set 
up  his  shoulders  to  his  ears,  which  was  a  good  warning 
that,  come  right  or  wrong,  this  rock  should  fly  from  its 
firm  base  as  soon  as  Jack  would;  and  that  any  remon- 
strance on  the  subject  was  purely  futile."  As  soon  as 
the  son  got  his  own  way,  he  "  put  his  shoulders  into  their 
natural  position." 

Eesignation  is  sometimes  shown  by  the  open  hands 
being  placed,  one  over  the  other,  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  body.  I  should  not  have  thought  this  little  gesture 
worth  even  a  passing  notice,  had  not  Dr.  W.  Ogle  re- 
marked to  me  that  he  had  two  or  three  times  observed 
it  in  patients  who  were  preparing  for  operations  under 
chloroform.  They  exhibited  no  great  fear,  but  seemed 
to  declare  by  this  posture  of  their  hands,  that  they  had 
made  up  their  minds,  and  were  resigned  to  the  inevi- 
table. 

We  may  now  inquire  why  men  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  when  they  feel, — whether  or  not  they  wish  to  show 
this  feeling, — that  they  cannot  or  will  not  do  something, 
or  will  not  resist  something  if  done  by  another,  shrug 
their  shoulders,  at  the  same  time  often  bending  in  their 
elbows,  showing  the  palms  of  their  hands  with  extended 
fingers,  often  throwing  their  heads  a  little  on  one  side, 
raising  their  eyebrows,  and  opening  their  mouths.  These 
states  of  the  mind  are  either  simply  passive,  or  show  a 
determination  not  to  act.  None  of  the  above  move- 
ments are  of  the  least  service.     The  explanation  lies,  I 

"  Mrs.  Oliphant,  '  The  Brownlows,'  vol.  ii.  p.  206. 


Chap.  XI.        SHRUGGING  THE  SHOULDERS.  271 

cannot  doubt,  in  the  principle  of  unconscious  antithesis. 
This  principle  here  seems  to  come  into  play  as  clearly  as 
in  the  case  of  a  dog,  who,  when  feeling  savage,  puts  him- 
self in  the  proper  attitude  for  attacking  and  for  making 
himself  appear  terrible  to  his  enemy;  but  as  soon  as  he 
feels  affectionate,  throws  his  whole  body  into  a  directly 
opposite  attitude,  though  this  is  of  no  direct  use  to  him. 

Let  it  be  observed  how  an  indignant  man,  who  re- 
sents, and  will  not  submit  to  some  injury,  holds  his  head 
erect,  squares  his  shoulders,  and  expands  his  chest.  He 
often  clenches  his  fists,  and  puts  one  or  both  arms  in  the 
proper  position  for  attack  or  defence,  with  the  muscles 
of  his  limbs  rigid.  He  frowns, — that  is,  he  contracts 
and  low^ers  his  brows, — and,  being  determined,  closes 
his  mouth.  The  actions  and  attitude  of  a  helpless  man 
are,  in  every  one  of  these  respects,  exactly  the  reverse. 
In  Plate  VI.  we  may  imagine  one  of  the  figures  on  the 
left  side  to  have  just  said,  "  What  do  you  mean  by  in- 
sulting me?''  and  one  of  the  figures  on  the  right  side 
to  answer,  "  I  really  could  not  help  it."  The  helpless 
man  unconsciously  contracts  the  muscles  of  his  forehead 
which  are  antagonistic  to  those  that  cause  a  frown,  and 
thus  raises  his  eyebrows;  at  the  same  time  he  relaxes 
the  muscles  about  the  mouth,  so  that  the  lower  jaw 
drops.  The  antithesis  is  complete  in  every  detail,  not 
only  in  the  movements  of  the  features,  but  in  the  position 
of  the  limbs  and  in  the  attitude  of  the  whole  body,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying  plate.  As  the  helpless 
or  apologetic  man  often  wishes  to  show  his  state  of  mind, 
he  then  acts  in  a  conspicuous  or  demonstrative  manner. 

In  accordance  with  the  fact  that  squaring  the  elbows 
and  clenching  the  fists  are  gestures  by  no  means  uni- 
versal with  the  men  of  all  races,  when  they  feel  indig- 
nant and  are  prepared  to  attack  their  enemy,  so  it  ap- 
pears that  a  helpless  or  apologetic  frame  of  mind  is  ex- 


272  SIGNS  OF  AFFIRMATION  Chap.  XL 

pressed  in  many  parts  of  the  world  by  merely  shrugging 
the  shoulders,  without  turning  inwards  the  elbows  and 
opening  the  hands.  The  man  or  child  who  is  obstinate, 
or  one  who  is  resigned  to  some  great  misfortune,  has 
in  neither  case  any  idea  of  resistance  by  active  means; 
and  he  expresses  this  state  of  mind,  by  simply  keeping 
his  shoulders  raised;  or  he  may  possibly  fold  his  arms 
across  his  breast. 

Signs  of  affirmatio7i  or  approval^  and  of  negation  or 
disapproval:  nodding  and  shaking  the  head. — I  was 
curious  to  ascertain  how  far  the  common  signs  used  by 
us  in  affirmation  and  negation  were  general  throughout 
the  world.  These  signs  are  indeed  to  a  certain  extent 
expressive  of  our  feelings,  as  we  give  a  vertical  nod  of 
approval  with  a  smile  to  our  children,  when  we  approve 
of  their  conduct;  and  shake  our  heads  laterally  with  a 
frown,  when  we  disapprove.  With  infants,  the  first  act 
of  denial  consists  in  refusing  food;  and  I  repeatedly 
noticed  with  my  own  infants,  that  they  did  so  by  with- 
drawing their  heads  laterally  from  the  breast,  or  from 
anything  offered  them  in  a  spoon.  In  accepting  food 
and  taking  it  into  their  mouths,  they  incline  their  heads 
forwards.  Since  making  these  observations  I  have  been 
informed  that  the  same  idea  had  occurred  to  Charma.^^ 
It  deserves  notice  that  in  accepting  or  taking  food,  there 
is  only  a  single  movement  forward,  and  a  single  nod  im- 
plies an  affirmation.  On  the  other  hand,  in  refusing 
food,  especially  if  it  be  pressed  on  them,  children  fre- 
quently move  their  heads  several  times  from  side  to  side, 
as  we  do  in  shaking  our  heads  in  negation.  Moreover, 
in  the  case  of  refusal,  the  head  is  not  rarely  thrown  back- 
wards, or  the  mouth  is  closed,  so  that  these  movements 

"  '  Essai  siir  le  Lang-ag-e,'  2nd  edit.  1846.  I  am  much  in- 
debted to  Miss  Wedg-wood  for  having-  given  me  this  in- 
formation, with  an  extract  from  the  work. 


Chap.  XI.  AND  NEGATION.  273 

might  likewise  come  to  serve  as  signs  of  negation.  Mr. 
Wedgwood  remarks  on  this  subject/^  that  "  when  the 
Yoice  is  exerted  with  closed  teeth  or  lips,  it  produces  the 
sound  of  the  letter  n  or  m.  Hence  we  may  account  for 
the  use  of  the  particle  ne  to  signify  negation,  and  possi- 
bly also  of  the  Greek  ^rj  in  the  same  sense." 

That  these  signs  are  innate  or  instinctive,  at  least 
with  Anglo-Saxons,  is  rendered  highly  probable  by  the 
blind  and  deaf  Laura  Bridgman  "  constantly  accom- 
panying her  yes  with  the  common  affirmative  nod,  and 
her  no  with  our  negative  shake  of  the  head."  Had  not 
Mr.  Lieber  stated  to  the  contrary,"  I  should  have  imag- 
ined that  these  gestures  might  have  been  acquired  or 
learnt  by  her,  considering  her  wonderful  sense  of  touch 
and  appreciation  of  the  movements  of  others.  With 
microcephalous  idiots,  who  are  so  degraded  that  they 
never  learn  to  speak,  one  of  them  is  described  by  Vogt,^** 
as  answering,  when  asked  whether  he  wished  for  more 
food  or  drink,  by  inclining  or  shaking  his  head.  Schmalz, 
in  his  remarkable  dissertation  on  the  education  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  as  well  as  of  children  raised  only  one 
degree  above  idiotcy,  assumes  that  they  can  always  both 
make  and  understand  the  common  signs  of  affirmation 
and  negation.^^ 

Nevertheless  if  we  look  to  the  various  races  of  man, 
these  signs  are  not  so  universally  employed  as  I  should 
have  expected;  yet  they  seem  too  general  to  be  ranked 
as  altogether  conventional  or  artificial.  My  informants 
assert  that  both  signs  are  used  by  the  Malays,  by  the 
natives  of  Ceylon,  the  Chinese,  the  negroes  of  the  Guinea 

"  '  On  the  Orig-in  of  Lang-uag-e,'  1866,  p.  91. 

"  '  On  the  Vocal  Sounds  of  L.  Bridg-man;  '  Smithsonian 
Contributions,  1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  11. 

^^  '  Memoire  sur  les  Microcephales,'  1867,  p.  27. 

"  Quoted  by  Tylor,  '  Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd 
edit.  1870,  p.  38. 


274  SIGNS  OF  AFFIRMATION  Chap.  XI. 

coast,  and,  according  to  Gaika,  by  the  Kafirs  of  South 
Africa,  though  with  these  latter  people  Mrs.  Barber  has 
never  seen  a  lateral  shake  used  as  a  negative.  With  re- 
spect to  the  Australians,  seven  observers  agree  that  a  nod 
is  given  in  affirmation;  five  agree  about  a  lateral  shake 
in  negation,  accompanied  or  not  by  some  word;  but 
Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  has  never  seen  this  latter  sign  in  Queens- 
land, and  Mr.  Bulmer  says  that  in  Gipps'  Land  a  nega- 
tive is  expressed  by  throwing  the  head  a  little  backwards 
and  putting  out  the  tongue.  At  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  continent,  near  Torres  Straits,  the  natives  when 
uttering  a  negative  "  don't  shake  the  head  with  it,  but 
holding  up  the  right  hand,  shake  it  by  turning  it  half 
round  and  back  again  two  or  three  times."  ^^  The  throw- 
ing back  of  the  head  with  a  cluck  of  the  tongue  is  said 
to  be  used  as  a  negative  by  the  modern  Greeks  and  Turks, 
the  latter  people  expressing  yes  by  a  movement  like  that 
made  by  us  when  we  shake  our  heads. ^^  The  Abys- 
sinians,  as  I  am  informed  by  Captain  Speedy,  express  a 
negative  by  jerking  the  head  to  the  right  shoulder,  to- 
gether with  a  slight  cluck,  the  mouth  being  closed;  an 
affirmation  is  expressed  by  the  head  being  thrown  back- 
wards and  the  eyebrows  raised  for  an  instant.  The 
Tagals  of  Luzon,  in  the  Philippine  Archipelago,  as  I  hear 
from  Dr.  Adolf  Meyer,  when  they  say  "  yes,"  also  throw 
the  head  backwards.  According  to  the  Rajah  Brooke, 
the  Dyaks  of  Borneo  express  an  affirmation  by  raising 
the  eyebrows,  and  a  negation  by  slightly  contracting 
them,  together  with  a  peculiar  look  from  the  eyes.  With 
the  Arabs  on  the  Nile,  Professor  and  Mrs.  Asa  Gray 
concluded  that  nodding  in  affirmation  was  rare,  whilst 


^  Mr.  J.  B.  Jukes,  '  Letters  and  Extracts,'  &c.  1871,  p. 
248. 

^  F.  Lieber,  '  On  the  Vocal  Sounds,'  &c.  p.  11.  Tylor, 
ibid.  p.  53. 


Chap.  XI.  AND  NEGATION.  275 

shaking  the  head  in  negation  was  never  used,  and  was 
not  even  understood  by  them.  With  the  Esquimaux  ^* 
a  nod  means  yes  and  a  wink  710.  The  New  Zealanders 
"  elevate  the  head  and  chin  in  place  of  nodding  acquies- 
cence." ^^ 

With  the  Hindoos  Mr.  H.  Erskine  concludes  from 
inquiries  made  from  experienced  Europeans,  and  from 
native  gentlemen,  that  the  signs  of  affirmation  and  ne- 
gation vary— a  nod  and  a  lateral  shake  being  sometimes 
used  as  we  do;  but  a  negative  is  more  commonly  ex- 
pressed by  the  head  being  thrown  suddenly  backwards 
and  a  httle  to  one  side,  with  a  cluck  of  the  tongue.  What 
the  meaning  may  be  of  this  cluck  of  the  tongue,  which 
has  been  observed  with  various  people,  I  cannot  imagine. 
A  native  gentleman  stated  that  affirmation  is  frequently 
shown  by  the  head  being  thrown  to  the  left.  I  asked 
Mr.  Scott  to  attend  particularly  to  this  point,  and,  after 
repeated  observations,  he  believes  that  a  vertical  nod 
is  not  commonly  used  by  the  natives  in  affirmation,  but 
that  the  head  is  first  thrown  backwards  either  to  the 
left  or  right,  and  then  jerked  obliquely  forwards  only 
once.  This  movement  would  perhaps  have  been  de- 
scribed by  a  less  careful  observer  as  a  lateral  shake.  He 
also  states  that  in  negation  the  head  is  usually  held 
nearly  upright,  and  shaken  several  times. 

Mr.  Bridges  informs  me  that  the  Fuegians  nod  their 
heads  vertically  in  affirmation,  and  shake  them  laterally 
in  denial.  With  the  wild  Indians  of  North  America, 
according  to  Mr.  Washington  Matthews,  nodding  and 
shaking  the  head  have  been  learnt  from  Europeans,  and 
are  not  naturally  employed.  They  express  affirmation 
"  by  describing  with  the  hand  (all  the  fingers  except  the 


"  Dr.  King-,  Edinburgh  Phil.  Journal,  1845,  p.  313. 
«  Tylor,  'Early  History  of  Mankind,'  2nd  edit.   1870, 
p.  53. 


276  SIGNS  OF  AFFIRMATION  Chap.  XL 

index  being  flexed)  a  curve  downwards  and  outwards 
from  the  body,  whilst  negation  is  expressed  by  moving 
the  open  hand  outwards,  with  the  palm  facing  inwards." 
Other  observers  state  that  the  sign  of  affirmation  with 
these  Indians  is  the  forefinger  being  raised,  and  then 
lowered  and  pointed  to  the  ground,  or  the  hand  is  waved 
straight  forward  from  the  face;  and  that  the  sign  of 
negation  is  the  finger  or  whole  hand  shaken  from  side 
to  side.^**  This  latter  movement  probably  represents  in 
all  cases  the  lateral  shaking  of  the  head.  The  Italians 
are  said  in  like  manner  to  move  the  lifted  finger  from 
right  to  left  in  negation,  as  indeed  we  English  some- 
times do. 

On  the  whole  we  find  considerable  diversity  in  the 
signs  of  affirmation  and  negation  in  the  different  races 
of  man.  With  respect  to  negation,  if  we  admit  that  the 
shaking  of  the  finger  or  hand  from  side  to  side  is  sym- 
bolic of  the  lateral  movement  of  the  head;  and  if  we 
admit  that  the  sudden  backward  movement  of  the  head 
represents  one  of  the  actions  often  practised  by  3^oung 
children  in  refusing  food,  then  there  is  much  uniformity 
throughout  the  world  in  the  signs  of  negation,  and  we 
can  see  how  they  originated.  The  most  marked  excep- 
tions are  presented  by  the  Arabs,  Esquimaux,  some  Aus- 
tralian tribes,  and  Dyaks.  With  the  latter  a  frown  is 
the  sign  of  negation,  and  with  us  frowning  often  accom- 
panies a  lateral  shake  of  the  head. 

With  respect  to  nodding  in  affirmation,  the  excep- 
tions are  rather  more  numerous,  namely  with  some  of 
the  Hindoos,  with  the  Turks,  Abyssinians,  Dyaks, 
Tagals,  and  New  Zealanders.  The  eyebrows  are  some- 
times raised  in  affirmation,  and  as  a  person  in  bending 

"  Lubbock,  '  The  Orig-in  of  Civilization,'  1870,  p.  277. 
Tylor,  ibid.  p.  38.  Lieber  (ibid.  p.  11)  remarks  on  the  nega- 
tire  of  the  Italians. 


Chap.  XI.  AND  NEGATION.  2T7 

his  head  forwards  and  downwards  naturally  looks  up  to 
the  person  whom  he  addresses,  he  will  be  apt  to  raise  his 
eyebrows,  and  this  sign  may  thus  have  arisen  as  an  abbre- 
viation. So  again  with  the  Xew  Zealanders,  the  lifting 
up  the  chin  and  head  in  affirmation  may  perhaps  repre- 
sent in  an  abbreviated  form  the  upward  movement  of  the 
head  after  it  has  been  nodded  forwards  and  downwards. 


278  SURPRISE.  Chap.  XL 


CHAPTEE  XII. 

SuEPRiSE — Astonishment — Fear — Horror. 

Surprise,  astonishment — Elevation  of  the  eyebrows — Open- 
ing the  mouth — Protrusion  of  the  lips — Gestures  accom- 
panying" surprise — Admiration — Fear — Terror — Erection 
of  the  hair — Contraction  of  the  platysma  muscle — Dila- 
tation of  the  pupils — Horror — Conclusion. 

Attention,  if  sudden  and  close,  graduates  into  sur- 
prise; and  this  into  astonishment;  and  this  into  stupe- 
fied amazement.  The  latter  frame  of  mind  is  closely 
akin  to  terror.  Attention  is  shown  by  the  eyebrows  being 
slightly  raised;  and  as  this  state  increases  into  surprise, 
they  are  raised  to  a  much  greater  extent,  with  the  eyes 
and  mouth  widely  open.  The  raising  of  the  eyebrows 
is  necessary  in  order  that  the  eyes  should  be  opened 
quickly  and  widely;  and  this  movement  produces  trans- 
verse wrinkles  across  the  forehead.  The  degree  to  which 
the  eyes  and  mouth  are  opened  corresponds  with  the  de- 
gree of  surprise  felt;  but  these  movements  must  be  co- 
ordinated; for  a  widely  opened  mouth  with  eyebrows 
only  slightly  raised  results  in  a  meaningless  grimace,  as 
Dr.  Duchenne  has  shown  in  one  of  his  photographs.^ 
On  the  other  hand,  a  person  may  often  be  seen  to  pre- 
tend surprise  by  merely  raising  his  eyebrows. 

Dr.  Duchenne  has  given  a  photograph  of  an  old  man 

*  *  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie,*  Album,  1862,  p.  42. 


Chap.  Xn.  SURPRISE.  279 

with  his  eyebrows  well  elevated  and  arched  by  the  gal- 
vanization of  the  frontal  muscle;  and  with  his  mouth 
voluntarily  opened.  This  figure  expresses  surprise  with 
much  truth.  I  showed  it  to  twenty-four  persons  without 
a  word  of  explanation,  and  one  alone  did  not  at  all  under- 
stand what  was  intended.  A  second  person  answered 
terror,  which  is  not  far  wrong;  some  of  the  others,  how- 
ever, added  to  the  words  surprise  or  astonishment,  the 
epithets  horrified,  woful,  painful,  or  disgusted. 

The  eyes  and  mouth  being  widely  open  is  an  expres- 
sion universally  recognized  as  one  of  surprise  or  aston- 
ishment. Thus  Shakespeare  says,  "  I  saw  a  smith  stand 
with  open  mouth  swallowing  a  tailor's  news."  ('  King 
John,'  act  iv.  scene  ii.)  And  again,  "  They  seemed  al- 
most, with  staring  on  one  another,  to  tear  the  cases  of 
their  eyes;  there  was  speech  in  the  dumbness,  language 
in  their  very  gesture;  they  looked  as  they  had  heard  of 
a  world  destroyed."    (^  Winter's  Tale,'  act  v.  scene  ii.) 

My  informants  answer  with  remarkable  uniformity  to 
the  same  effect,  with  respect  to  the  various  races  of  man; 
the  above  movements  of  the  features  being  often  accom- 
panied by  certain  gestures  and  sounds,  presently  to  be 
described.  Twelve  observers  in  different  parts  of  Aus- 
tralia agree  on  this  head.  Mr.  Winwood  Reade  has  ob- 
served this  expression  with  the  negroes  on  the  Guinea 
coast.  The  chief  Gaika  and  others  answer  yes  to  my 
query  with  respect  to  the  Kafirs  of  South  Africa;  and 
so  do  others  emphatically  with  reference  to  the  Abys- 
sinians,  Ceylonese,  Chinese,  Fuegians,  various  tribes  of 
Xorth  America,  and  New  Zealanders.  With  the  latter, 
Mr.  Stack  states  that  the  expression  is  more  plainly 
shown  by  certain  individuals  than  by  others,  though  all 
endeavour  as  much  as  possible  to  conceal  their  feelings. 
The  Dyaks  of  Borneo  are  said  by  the  Rajah  Brooke  to 
open  their  eyes  widely,  when  astonished,  often  s\Wnging 


280  ASTONISHMENT.  Chap.  XIL 

their  heads  to  and  fro,  and  beating  their  breasts.  Mr, 
Scott  informs  me  that  the  workmen  in  the  Botanic  Gar- 
dens at  Calcutta  are  strictly  ordered  not  to  smoke;  but 
they  often  disobey  tliis  order,  and  when  suddenly  sur- 
prised in  the  act,  they  first  open  their  eyes  and  mouths 
widely.  They  then  often  slightly  shrug  their  shoulders, 
as  they  perceive  that  discovery  is  inevitable,  or  frown 
and  stamp  on  the  ground  from  vexation.  Soon  they 
recover  from  their  surprise,  and  abject  fear  is  exhibited 
by  the  relaxation  of  all  their  muscles;  their  heads  seem 
to  sink  between  their  shoulders;  their  fallen  eyes  wan- 
der to  and  fro;  and  they  supplicate  forgiveness. 

The  well-known  Australian  explorer,  Mr.  Stuart,  has 
given  "^  a  striking  account  of  stupefied  amazement  to- 
gether with  terror  in  a  native  who  had  never  before  seen 
a  man  on  horseback.  Mr.  Stuart  approached  unseen  and 
called  to  him  from  a  little  distance.  "  He  turned  round 
and  saw  me.  What  he  imagined  I  was  I  do  not  know; 
but  a  finer  picture  of  fear  and  astonishment  I  never  saw. 
He  stood  incapable  of  moving  a  limb,  riveted  to  the  spot,, 
mouth  open  and  eyes  staring.  ...  He  remained  mo- 
tionless until  our  black  got  within  a  few  yards  of  him, 
when  suddenly  throwing  down  his  waddies,  he  jumped 
into  a  mulga  bush  as  high  as  he  could  get."  He  could 
not  speak,  and  answered  not  a  word  to  the  inquiries  made 
by  the  black,  but,  trembling  from  head  to  foot,  "  waved 
with  his  hand  for  us  to  be  off." 

That  the  eyebrows  are  raised  by  an  innate  or  instinc- 
tive impulse  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  Laura 
Bridgman  invariably  acts  thus  when  astonished,  as  I 
have  been  assured  by  the  lady  who  has  lately  had  charge 
of  her.  As  surprise  is  excited  by  something  unexpected 
or  unknown,  we  naturally  desire,  when  startled,  to  per- 


*  *  The  Polyglot  News  Letter,'  Melbourne,  Dec.  1858,  p.  2. 


Chj^.  XII.  ASTONISHMENT.  281 

ceive  the  cause  as  quickly  as  possible;  and  we  consequent- 
ly open  our  eyes  fully^  so  that  the  field  of  vision  may  be 
increased,  and  the  eyeballs  moved  easily  in  any  direc- 
tion. But  this  hardly  accounts  for  the  eyebrows  being 
so  greatly  raised  as  is  the  case,  and  for  the  wild  staring 
of  the  open  eyes.  The  explanation  lies,  I  believe,  in  the 
impossibility  of  opening  the  eyes  with  great  rapidity  by 
merely  raising  the  upper  lids.  To  effect  this  the  eye- 
brows must  be  lifted  energetically.  Any  one  who  will 
try  to  open  his  eyes  as  quickly  as  possible  before  a  mirror 
will  find  that  he  acts  thus;  and  the  energetic  lifting  up 
of  the  eyebrows  opens  the  eyes  so  widely  that  they  stare, 
the  white  being  exposed  all  round  the  iris.  Moreover, 
the  elevation  of  the  eyebrows  is  an  advantage  in  looking 
upwards;  for  as  long  as  they  are  lowered  they  impede 
our  vision  in  this  direction.  Sir  C.  Bell  gives  ^  a  curious 
little  proof  of  the  part  which  the  eyebrows  play  in  open- 
ing the  eyelids.  In  a  stupidly  drunken  man  all  the  mus- 
cles are  relaxed,  and  the  eyelids  consequently  droop,  in 
the  same  manner  as  when  we  are  falling  asleep.  To  coun- 
teract this  tendency  the  drunkard  raises  his  eyebrows; 
and  this  gives  to  him  a  puzzled,  foolish  look,  as  is  well 
represented  in  one  of  Hogarth's  drawings.  The  habit  of 
raising  the  eyebrows  having  once  been  gained  in  order 
to  see  as  quickly  as  possible  all  around  us,  the  movement 
would  follow  from  the  force  of  association  whenever 
astonishment  was  felt  from  any  cause,  even  from  a  sud- 
den sound  or  an  idea. 

With  adult  persons,  when  the  eyebrows  are  raised, 
the  whole  forehead  becomes  much  wrinkled  in  trans- 
verse lines;  but  with  children  this  occurs  only  to  a 
slight  degree.  The  wrinkles  run  in  lines  concentric  with 
each  eyebrow,  and  are  partially  confluent  in  the  middle. 


•  *  The  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  106. 
19 


282  ASTONISHMENT.  Chap.  XIL 

They  are  highly  characteristic  of  the  expression  of  sur- 
prise or  astonishment.  Each  eyebrow,  when  raised,  be- 
comes also,  as  Duchenne  remarks,"^  more  arched  than  it 
was  before. 

The  cause  of  the  mouth  being  opened  when  astonish- 
ment is  felt,  is  a  much  more  complex  affair;  and  several 
causes  apparently  concur  in  leading  to  this  movement. 
It  has  often  been  supposed  ^  that  the  sense  of  hearing 
is  thus  rendered  more  acute;  but  I  have  watched  per- 
sons listening  intently  to  a  slight  noise,  the  nature  and 
source  of  which  they  knew  perfectly,  and  they  did  not 
open  their  mouths.  Therefore  I  at  one  time  imagined 
that  the  open  mouth  might  aid  in  distinguishing  the 
direction  whence  a  sound  proceeded,  by  giving  another 
channel  for  its  entrance  into  the  ear  through  the  eu- 
stachian tube.  But  Dr.  W.  Ogle  ^  has  been  so  kind  as  to 
search  the  best  recent  authorities  on  the  functions  of  the 
eustachian  tube,  and  he  informs  me  that  it  is  almost 
conclusively  proved  that  it  remains  closed  except  during 
the  act  of  deglutition;  and  that  in  persons  in  whom  the 
tube  remains  abnormally  open,  the  sense  of  hearing,  as 
far  as  external  sounds  are  concerned,  is  by  no  means 
improved;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  impaired  by  the  respira- 
tory sounds  being  rendered  more  distinct.  If  a  watch 
be  placed  within  the  mouth,  but  not  allowed  to  couch 
the  sides,  the  ticking  is  heard  much  less  plainly  than 
when  held  outside.  In  persons  in  whom  from  disease 
or  a  cold  the  eustachian  tube  is  permanently  or  tempo- 
raa-ily  closed,  the  sense  ©f  hearing  is  injured;  but  this  may 

*  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie,'  Album,  p.  6, 

■^  See,  for  instance,  Dr.  Piderit    ('  Mimik  iind  Physiog"- 

nomik,'  s.  88),  who  has  a  good  discussion  on  the  expression 

of  surprise. 

°  Dr.  Murie  has  also  given  me  information  leading-  to 

the    same   conclusion,   derived   in   part   from   comparative 

anatomy. 


Chap.  XII.  ASTONISHMENT.  283 

be  accounted  for  by  mucus  accumulating  within  the  tube, 
and  the  consequent  exclusion  of  air.  We  may  therefore 
infer  that  the  mouth  is  not  kept  open  under  the  sense 
of  astonishment  for  the  sake  of  hearing  sounds  more 
distinctly;  notwithstanding  that  most  deaf  people  keep 
their  mouths  open. 

Every  sudden  emotion,  including  astonishment, 
quickens  the  action  of  the  heart,  and  with  it  the  respira- 
tion. Now  we  can  breathe,  as  Gratiolet  remarks  '  and  as 
appears  to  me  to  be  the  case,  much  more  quietly  through 
the  open  mouth  than  through  the  nostrils.  Therefore, 
when  we  wish  to  listen  intently  to  any  sound,  we  either 
stop  breathing,  or  breathe  as  quietly  as  possible,  by  open- 
ing our  mouths,  at  the  same  time  keeping  our  bodies 
motionless.  One  of  my  sons  was  awakened  in  the  night 
by  a  noise  under  circumstances  which  naturally  led  to 
great  care,  and  after  a  few  minutes  he  perceived  that  his 
mouth  was  widely  open.  He  then  became  conscious  that 
he  had  opened  it  for  the  sake  of  breathing  as  quietly,  as 
possible.  This  view  receives  support  from  the  reversed 
case  which  occurs  with  dogs.  A  dog  when  panting  after 
exercise,  or  on  a  hot  day,  breathes  loudly;  but  if  his  at- 
tention be  suddenly  aroused,  he  instantly  pricks  his  ears 
to  listen,  shuts  his  mouth,  and  breathes  quietly,  as  he  is 
enabled  to  do,  through  his  nostrils. 

When  the  attention  is  concentrated  for  a  length  of 
time  with  fixed  earnestness  on  any  object  or  subject,  all 
the  organs  of  the  body  are  forgotten  and  neglected;  * 
and  as  the  nervous  energy  of  each  individual  is  limited 
in  amount,  little  is  transmitted  to  any  part  of  the  system, 
excepting  that  which  is  at  the  time  brought  into  ener- 
getic action.     Therefore  many  of  the  muscles  tend  to 


7    i 


De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  234. 
*  See,  on  this  subject,  Gratiolet,  ibid.  p.  254. 


284  ASTONISHMENT.  Chap.  XII. 

become  relaxed,  and  the  jaw  drops  from  its  own  weight. 
This  will  account  for  the  dropping  of  the  jaw  and  open 
mouth  of  a  man  stupefied  with  amazement,  and  perhaps 
when  less  strongly  affected.  I  have  noticed  this  appear- 
ance, as  I  find  recorded  in  my  notes,  in  very  young  chil- 
dren when  they  were  only  moderately  surprised. 

There  is  still  another  and  highly  effective  cause,  lead- 
ing to  the  mouth  being  opened,  when  we  are  astonished, 
and  more  especially  when  we  are  suddenly  startled.  We 
can  draw  a  full  and  deep  inspiration  much  more  easily 
through  the  widely  open  mouth  than  through  the  nos- 
trils. Now  when  we  start  at  any  sudden  sound  or  sight, 
almost  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  involuntarily  and 
momentarily  thrown  into  strong  action,  for  the  sake  of 
guarding  ourselves  against  or  jumping  away  from  the 
danger,  which  we  habitually  associate  with  anything  un- 
expected. But  we  always  unconsciously  prepare  our- 
selves for  any  great  exertion,  as  formerly  explained,  by 
first  taking  a  deep  and  full  inspiration,  and  we  conse- 
quently open  our  mouths.  If  no  exertion  follows,  and 
we  still  remain  astonished,  we  cease  for  a  time  to  breathe, 
or  breathe  as  quietly  as  possible,  in  order  that  every 
sound  may  be  distinctly  heard.  Or  again,  if  our  atten- 
tion continues  long  and  earnestly  absorbed,  all  our  mus- 
cles become  relaxed,  and  the  jaw,  which  was  at  first  sud- 
denly opened,  remains  dropped.  Thus  several  causes 
concur  towards  this  same  movement,  whenever  surprise, 
astonishment,  or  amazement  is  felt. 

Although  when  thus  affected,  our  mouths  are  gen- 
erally opened,  yet  the  lips  are  often  a  little  protruded. 
This  fact  reminds  us  of  the  same  movement,  though  in 
a  much  more  strongly  marked  degree,  in  the  chimpanzee 
and  orang  when  astonished.  As  a  strong  expiration  nat- 
urally follows  the  deep  inspiration  which  accompanies 
the  first  sense  of  startled  surprise,  and  as  the  lips  are 


Chap.  XII.  ASTONISHMENT.  285 

often  protruded,  the  various  sounds  which  are  then  com- 
monly uttered  can  apparently  be  accounted  for.  But 
sometimes  a  strong  expiration  alone  is  heard;  thus  Laura 
Bridgman,  when  amazed,  rounds  and  protrudes  her  lips, 
opens  them,  and  breathes  strongly.®  One  of  the  com- 
monest sounds  is  a  deep  Oh ;  and  this  would  naturally 
follow,  as  explained  by  Helmholtz,  from  the  mouth  being 
moderately  opened  and  the  lips  protruded.  On  a  quiet 
night  some  rockets  were  fired  from  the  ^  Beagle,'  in  a 
little  creek  at  Tahiti,  to  amuse  the  natives;  and  as  each 
rocket  was  let  off  there  was  absolute  silence,  but  this  was 
invariably  followed  by  a  deep  groaning  Oh^  resounding 
all  round  the  bay.  Mr.  Washington  Matthews  says  that 
the  North  American  Indians  express  astonishment  by  a 
groan;  and  the  negroes  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Winwood  Reade,  protrude  their  lips,  and 
make  a  sound  like  height  heigh.  If  the  mouth  is  not 
much  opened,  whilst  the  lips  are  considerably  protruded, 
a  blowing,  hissing,  or  whistling  noise  is  produced.  Mr. 
R.  Brough  Smith  informs  me  that  an  Australian  from 
the  interior  was  taken  to  the  theatre  to  see  an  acrobat 
rapidly  turning  head  over  heels:  "  he  was  greatly  aston- 
ished, and  protruded  his  lips,  making  a  noise  with  his 
mouth  as  if  blowing  out  a  match."  According  to  Mr. 
Bulmer  the  Australians,  when  surprised,  utter  the  ex- 
clamation korki^  "  and  to  do  this  the  mouth  is  drawn 
out  as  if  going  to  whistle."  We  Europeans  often  whistle 
as  a  sign  of  surprise;  thus,  in  a  recent  novel  ^^  it  is  said, 
"  here  the  man  expressed  his  astonishment  and  disap- 
probation by  a  prolonged  whistle."  A  Kafir  girl,  as  Mr. 
J.  Mansel  Weale  informs  me,  "  on  hearing  of  the  high 
price  of  an  article,  raised  her  eyebrows  and  whistled  just 

•  Lieber,  *  On   the  Vocal   Sounds  of  Laura   Bridgman,' 
Smithsonian  Contributions,  1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  7. 
"  '  Wenderholme,'  vol.  ii.  p.  91. 


286  ASTONISHMENT.  Chap.  XII. 

as  a  European  would."  Mr.  Wedgwood  remarks  that 
such  sounds  are  written  down  as  whew,  and  they  serve 
as  interjections  for  surprise. 

According  to  three  other  observers^  the  Australians 
often  evince  astonishment  by  a  clucking  noise.  Euro- 
peans also  sometimes  express  gentle  surprise  by  a  little 
clicking  noise  of  nearly  the  same  kind.  We  have  seen 
that  when  we  are  startled,  the  mouth  is  suddenly  opened; 
and  if  the  tongue  happens  to  be  then  pressed  closely 
against  the  palate,  its  sudden  withdrawal  will  produce  a 
sound  of  this  kind,  which  might  thus  come  to  express 
surprise. 

Turning  to  gestures  of  the  body.  A  surprised  person 
often  raises  his  opened  hands  high  above  his  head,  or  by 
bending  his  arms  only  to  the  level  of  his  face.  The  flat 
palms  are  directed  towards  the  person  who  causes  this 
feeling,  and  the  straightened  fingers  are  separated.  This 
gesture  is  represented  by  Mr.  Eejlander  in  Plate  VII. 
fig.  1.  In  the  '  Last  Supper,'  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  two 
of  the  Apostles  have  their  hands  half  uplifted,  clearly 
expressive  of  their  astonishment.  A  trustworthy  ob- 
server told  me  that  he  had  lately  met  his  wife  under 
most  unexpected  circumstances:  "She  started, opened  her 
mouth  and  eyes  very  widely,  and  threw  up  both  her  arms 
above  her  head."  Several  years  ago  I  was  surprised  by 
seeing  several  of  my  young  children  earnestly  doing 
something  together  on  the  ground;  but  the  distance  was 
too  great  for  me  to  ask  what  they  were  about.  Therefore 
I  threw  up  my  open  hands  with  extended  fingers  above 
my  head;  and  as  soon  as  I  had  done  this,  I  became  con- 
scious of  the  action.  I  then  waited,  without  saying  a 
word,  to  see  if  my  children  had  understood  this  gesture; 
and  as  they  came  running  to  me  they  cried  out,  "  We 
saw  that  you  were  astonished  at  us."  I  do  not  know 
whether  this  gesture  is  common  to  the  various  races  of 


Chap.  XII.  ASTONISHMENT.  287 

man,  as  I  neglected  to  make  inquiries  on  this  head.  That 
it  is  innate  or  natural  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
Laura  Bridgman,  when  amazed,  "  spreads  her  arms  and 
turns  her  hands  witli  extended  fingers  upwards; "  ^^  nor 
is  it  likely,  considering  that  the  feeling  of  surprise  is  gen- 
erally a  brief  one,  that  she  should  have  learnt  this  ges- 
ture through  her  keen  sense  of  touch. 

Huschke  describes  ^-  a  somewhat  different  yet  allied 
gesture,  which  he  says  is  exhibited  by  persons  when 
astonished.  They  hold  themselves  erect,  with  the  fea- 
tures as  before  described,  but  with  the  straightened 
arms  extended  backwards — the  stretched  fingers  being 
separated  from  each  other.  I  have  never  myself  seen 
this  gesture;  but  Huschke  is  probably  correct;  for  a 
friend  asked  another  man  how  he  would  express  great 
astonishment,  and  he  at  once  threw  himself  into  this 
attitude. 

These  gestures  are,  I  believe,  explicable  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  antithesis.  We  have  seen  that  an  indignant 
man  holds  his  head  erect,  squares  his  shoulders,  turns 
out  his  elbows,  often  clenches  his  fist,  frowns,  and  closes 
his  mouth;  whilst  the  attitude  of  a  helpless  man  is  in 
every  one  of  these  details  the  reverse.  Xow,  a  man  in  an 
ordinary  frame  of  mind,  doing  nothing  and  thinking 
of  nothing  in  particular,  usually  keeps  his  two  arms  sus- 
pended laxly  by  his  sides,  with  his  hands  somewhat 
flexed,  and  the  fingers  near  together.  Therefore,  to 
raise  the  arms  suddenly,  either  the  whole  arms  or  the 
fore-arms,  to  open  the  palms  flat,  and  to  separate  the 


^^  Lieber,  '  On  the  Vocal  Sounds,'  &c.,  ibid.  p.  7. 

"  Huschke,  '  ^fimiees  et  Physiognomices,'  1821,  p.  18, 
Gratiolet  (De  la  Phys.  p.  255)  gives  a  figure  of  a  man  in  this 
attitude,  which,  however,  seems  to  me  expressive  of  fear 
combined  w^ith  astonishment.  Le  Brun  also  refers  (Lava- 
ter,  vol.  ix.  p.  299)  to  the  hands  of  an  astonished  man  being 
opened. 


288  ASTONISHMENT.  Chap.  XIL 

fingers, — or,  again,  to  straighten  the  arms,  extending 
them  backwards  with  separated  fingers, — are  movements 
in  complete  antithesis  to  those  preserved  under  an  indif- 
ferent frame  of  mind,  and  they  are,  in  consequence,  un- 
consciously assumed  by  an  astonished  man.  There  is, 
also,  often  a  desire  to  display  surprise  in  a  conspicuous 
manner,  and  the  above  attitudes  are  well  fitted  for  this 
purpose.  It  may  be  asked  why  should  surprise,  and  only 
a  few  other  states  of  the  mind,  be  exhibited  by  move- 
ments in  antithesis  to  others.  But  this  principle  will 
not  be  brought  into  play  in  the  case  of  those  emotions, 
such  as  terror,  great  joy,  suffering,  or  rage,  which  nat- 
urally lead  to  certain  lines  of  action  and  produce  certain 
effects  on  the  body,  for  the  whole  system  is  thus  pre- 
occupied; and  these  emotions  are  already  thus  expressed 
with  the  greatest  plainness. 

There  is  another  little  gesture,  expressive  of  astonish- 
ment, of  which  I  can  offer  no  explanation;  namely,  the 
hand  being  placed  over  the  mouth  or  on  some  part  of 
the  head.  This  has  been  observed  with  so  many  races 
of  man,  that  it  must  have  some  natural  origin.  A  wild 
Australian  was  taken  into  a  large  room  full  of  official 
papers,  which  surprised  him  greatly,  and  he  cried  out, 
cluck^  cluch^  cluck^  putting  the  back  of  his  hand  towards 
his  lips.  Mrs.  Barber  says  that  the  Kafirs  and  Fingoes 
express  astonishment  by  a  serious  look  and  by  placing 
the  right  hand  upon  the  mouth,  uttering  the  word  mawo, 
which  means  '  wonderful.'  The  Bushmen  are  said  ^^ 
to  put  their  right  hands  to  their  necks,  bending  their 
heads  backwards.  Mr.  Winwood  Reade  has  observed  that 
the  negroes  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  when  surprised, 
clap  their  hands  to  their  mouths,  saying  at  the  same 
time,  "  My  mouth  cleaves  to  me,"  i.  e.  to  my  hands;  and 

"  Huschke,  ibid.  p.  18. 


Chap.  XII.  FEAR. 

he  has  heard  that  this  is  their  usual  gesture  on  such  oc- 
casions. Captain  Speedy  informs  me  that  the  Abys- 
sinians  place  their  right  hand  to  the  forehead,  with  the 
palm  outside.  Lastly,  Mr.  Washington  Matthews  states 
that  the  conventional  sign  of  astonishment  with  the  wild 
tribes  of  the  western  parts  of  the  United  States  "  is  made 
by  placing  the  half-closed  hand  over  the  mouth;  in 
doing  this,  the  head  is  often  bent  forwards,  and  words 
or  low  groans  are  sometimes  uttered."  Catlin  ^*  makes 
the  same  remark  about  the  hand  being  pressed  over  the 
mouth  by  the  Mandans  and  other  Indian  tribes. 

Admiration.. — Little  need  be  said  on  this  head.  Ad- 
miration apparently  consists  of  surprise  associated  with 
some  pleasure  and  a  sense  of  approval.  When  vividly 
felt,  the  eyes  are  opened  and  the  eyebrows  raised;  the 
eyes  become  bright,  instead  of  remaining  blank,  as  under 
simple  astonishment;  and  the  mouth,  instead  of  gaping 
open,  expands  into  a  smile. 

Fear^  Terror. — The  word  '  fear '  seems  to  be  derived 
from  what  is  sudden  and  dangerous;  ^^  and  that  of  terror 
from  the  trembling  of  the  vocal  organs  and  body.  I 
use  the  word  ^  terror  '  for  extreme  fear;  but  some  writers 
think  it  ought  to  be  confined  to  cases  in  which  the  imag- 
ination is  more  particularly  concerned.  Fear  is  often 
preceded  by  astonishment,  and  is  so  far  akin  to  it,  that 
both  lead  to  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing  being  in- 
stantly aroused.  In  both  cases  the  eyes  and  mouth  are 
widely  opened,  and  the  eyebrows  raised.    The  frightened 

"  '  North  American  Indians,'  3rd  edit.  1842,  vol.  i.  p.  105. 

^^  H.  Wedg-wood,  Diet,  of  Eng-lish  Etymology,  vol.  ii. 
1862,  p.  35.  See,  also,  Gratiolet  ('  De  la  Physionomie,'  p. 
135)  on  the  sources  of  such  words  as  '  terror,  horror, 
rigidus,  frigidus,'  &c. 


290  FEAR.  Chap.  XIL 

man  at  first  stands  like  a  statue  motionless  and  breathless, 
or  crouches  down  as  if  instinctively  to  escape  observa- 
tion. 

The  heart  beats  quickly  and  violently,  so  that  it  palpi- 
tates or  knocks  against  the  ribs;  but  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  it  then  works  more  efficiently  than  usual,  so  as 
to  send  a  greater  supply  of  blood  to  all  part^  of  the  body; 
for  the  skin  instantly  becomes  pale,  as  during  incipient 
faintness.  This  paleness  of  the  surface,  however,  is 
probably  in  large  part,  or  exclusivel}-,  due  to  the  vaso- 
motor centre  being  afi^ected  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cause 
the  contraction  of  the  small  arteries  of  the  skin.  That 
the  skin  is  much  affected  under  the  sense  of  great  fear, 
we  see  in  the  marvellous  and  inexplicable  manner  in 
which  perspiration  immediately  exudes  from  it.  This 
exudation  is  all  the  more  remarkable,  as  the  surface  is 
then  cold,  and  hence  the  term  a  cold  sweat;  w^hereas, 
the  sudorific  glands  are  properly  excited  into  action 
when  the  surface  is  heated.  The  hairs  also  on  the  skin 
stand  erect;  and  the  superficial  muscles  shiver.  In  con- 
nection with  the  disturbed  action  of  the  heart,  the  breath- 
ing is  hurried.  The  salivary  glands  act  imperfectly;  the 
mouth  becomes  dry,^^  and  is  often  opened  and  shut.  I 
have  also  noticed  that  under  slight  fear  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  yawn.  One  of  the  best-marked  symptoms 
is  the  trembling  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  body;  and  this 
is  often  first  seen  in  the  lips.  From  this  cause,  and  from 
the  dryness  of  the  mouth,  the  voice  becomes  husky  or 


i«  Mr.  Bain  ('  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,'  1865,  p.  54) 
explains  in  the  following-  manner  the  orig"in  of  the  custom 
"  of  subjecting"  criminals  in  India  to  the  ordeal  of  the 
morsel  of  rice.  The  accused  is  made  to  take  a  mouthful 
of  rice,  and  after  a  little  time  to  throw  it  out.  If  the 
morsel  is  quite  drj%  the  party  is  believed  to  be  g-uilty, — 
his  own  evil  conscience  operating-  to  paralyse  the  salivating 
organs." 


Chap.  XII.  FEAR.  291 

indistinct,  or  may  altogether  fail.  "  Obstupui,  stete- 
runtque  comge,  et  vox  faucibus  hsesit." 

Of  vague  fear  there  is  a  well-known  and  grand  de- 
scription in  Job: — "  In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the 
night,  when  deep  sleep  falleth  on  men,  fear  came  upon 
me,  and  trembling,  which  made  all  my  bones  to  shake. 
Then  a  spirit  passed  before  my  face;  the  hair  of  my 
flesh  stood  up.  It  stood  still,  but  I  coald  not  discern 
the  form  thereof:  an  image  was  before  my  eyes,  there 
was  silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice,  saying.  Shall  mortal 
man  be  more  just  than  God?  Shall  a  man  be  more  pure 
than  his  Maker?  ''  (Job  iv.  13.) 

As  fear  increases  into  an  agony  of  terror,  we  behold, 
as  under  all  violent  emotions,  diversified  results.  The 
heart  beats  wildly,  or  may  fail  to  act  and  faintness  ensue; 
there  is  a  death-like  pallor;  the  breathing  is  laboured; 
the  wings  of  the  nostrils  are  wildly  dilated;  "there  is 
a  gasping  and  convulsive  motion  of  the  lips,  a  tremor 
on  the  hollow  cheek,  a  gulping  and  catching  of  the 
throat; "  ^^  the  uncovered  and  protruding  eyeballs  are 
fixed  on  the  object  of  terror;  or  they  may  roll  restlessly 
from  side  to  side,  hue  illuc  volvens  oculos  totumque 
pererrat}^  The  pupils  are  said  to  be  enormously  dilated. 
All  the  muscles  of  the  body  may  become  rigid,  or  may 
be  thrown  into  convulsive  movements.  The  hands  are 
alternately  clenched  and  opened,  often  with  a  twitching 
movement.  The  arms  may  be  protruded,  as  if  to  avert 
some  dreadful  danger,  or  may  be  thrown  wildly  over  the 
head.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hagenauer  has  seen  this  latter 
action  in  a  terrified  Australian.    In  other  cases  there  is 


"  Sir  C.  Bell,  Transactions  of  Royal  Phil.  Soc.  1822,  p. 
308.    '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  88  and  pp.  164-169. 

"  See  ^loreau  on  the  rolling-  of  the  eyes,  in  the  edit,  of 
1820  of  Lavater,  tome  iv.  p.  263.  Also,  Gratiolet,  De  la 
Phys.  p.  17. 


292  FEAR.  Chap.  XIL 

a  sudden  and  uncontrollable  tendency  to  headlong  flight; 
and  so  strong  is  this,  that  the  boldest  soldiers  may  be 
seized  with  a  sudden  panic. 

As  fear  rises  to  an  extreme  pitch,  the  dreadful  scream 
of  terror  is  heard.  Great  beads  of  sweat  stand  on  the 
skin.  All  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  relaxed.  Utter 
prostration  soon  follows,  and  the  mental  powers  fail. 
The  intestines  are  affected.  The  sphincter  muscles  cease 
to  act,  and  no  longer  retain  the  contents  of  the  body. 

Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  has  given  me  so  striking  an 
account  of  intense  fear  in  an  insane  woman,  aged  thirty- 
five,  that  the  description  though  painful  ought  not  to 
be  omitted.  When  a  paroxysm  seizes  her,  she  screams 
out,  "  This  is  hell!  "  "  There  is  a  black  woman!  "  "  I 
can't  get  out!  " — and  other  such  exclamations.  When 
thus  screaming,  her  movements  are  those  of  alternate 
tension  and  tremor.  For  one  instant  she  clenches  her 
hands,  holds  her  arms  out  before  her  in  a  stiff  semi- 
flexed position;  then  suddenly  bends  her  body  forwards, 
sways  rapidly  to  and  fro,  draws  her  fingers  through 
her  hair,  clutches  at  her  neck,  and  tries  to  tear  off  her 
clothes.  The  sterno-cleido-mastoid  muscles  (which  serve 
to  bend  the  head  on  the  chest)  stand  out  prominently, 
as  if  swollen,  and  the  skin  in  front  of  them  is  much 
wrinkled.  Her  hair,  which  is  cut  short  at  the  back  of 
her  head,  and  is  smooth  when  she  is  calm,  now  stands 
on  end;  that  in  front  being  dishevelled  by  the  move- 
ments of  her  hands.  The  countenance  expresses  great 
mental  agony.  The  skin  is  flushed  over  the  face  and 
neck,  down  to  the  clavicles,  and  the  veins  of  the  forehead 
and  neck  stand  out  like  thick  cords.  The  lower  lip  drops, 
and  is  somewhat  everted.  The  mouth  is  kept  half  open, 
with  the  lower  jaw  projecting.  The  cheeks  are  hollow 
and  deeply  furrowed  in  curved  lines  running  from  the 
wings  of  the  nostrils  to  the  corners  of  the  mouth.    The 


Chap.  XIL  FEAR. 

nostrils  themselves  are  raised  and  extended.  The  eyes 
are  widely  opened,  and  beneath  them  the  skin  appears 
swollen;  the  pupils  are  large.  The  forehead  is  wrinkled 
transversely  in  many  folds,  and  at  the  inner  extremities 
of  the  eyebrows  it  is  strongly  furrowed  in  diverging  lines, 
produced  by  the  powerful  and  persistent  contraction  of 
the  corrugators. 

Mr.  Bell  has  also  described  ^*  an  agony  of  terror  and 
of  despair,  which  he  witnessed  in  a  murderer,  whilst 
carried  to  the  place  of  execution  in  Turin.  "  On  each 
side  of  the  car  the  officiating  priests  were  seated;  and 
in  the  centre  sat  the  criminal  himself.  It  was  impossible 
to  witness  the  condition  of  this  unhappy  wretch  without 
terror;  and  yet,  as  if  impelled  by  some  strange  infatua- 
tion, it  was  equally  impossible  not  to  gaze  upon  an  ob- 
ject so  wild,  so  full  of  horror.  He  seemed  about  thirty- 
five  years  of  age;  of  large  and  muscular  form;  his  coun- 
tenance marked  by  strong  and  savage  features;  half 
naked,  pale  as  death,  agonized  with  terror,  every  limb 
strained  in  anguish,  his  hands  clenched  convulsively, 
the  sweat  breaking  out  on  his  bent  and  contracted  brow, 
he  kissed  incessantly  the  figure  of  our  Saviour,  painted 
on  the  flag  which  was  suspended  before  him;  but  with 
an  agony  of  wildness  and  despair,  of  which  nothing  ever 
exhibited  on  the  stage  can  give  the  slightest  conception." 

I  will  add  only  one  other  case,  illustrative  of  a  man 
utterly  prostrated  by  terror.  An  atrocious  murderer  of 
two  persons  was  brought  into  a  hospital,  under  the  mis- 
taken impression  that  he  had  poisoned  himself;  and  Dr. 
W.  Ogle  carefully  watched  him  the  next  morning,  while 
he  was  being  handcuffed  and  taken  away  by  the  police. 
His  pallor  was  extreme,  and  his  prostration  so  great  that 


"  '  Observations  on  Italy,'  1825,  p.  48,  as  quoted  in  '  The 
Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  168. 


294  FEAR.  Chap.  XIX 

he  was  hardly  able  to  dress  himself.  His  skin  perspired; 
and  his  eyelids  and  head  drooped  so  much  that  it  was 
impossible  to  catch  even  a  glimpse  of  his  eyes.  His 
lower  jaw  hung  down.  There  was  no  contraction  of  any 
facial  muscle,  and  Dr.  Ogle  is  almost  certain  that  the 
hair  did  not  stand  on  end,  for  he  observed  it  narrowly, 
as  it  had  been  dyed  for  the  sake  of  concealment. 

With  respect  to  fear,  as  exhibited  by  the  various 
races  of  man,  my  informants  agree  that  the  signs  are 
the  same  as  with  Europeans.  They  are  displayed  in 
an  exaggerated  degree  with  the  Hindoos  and  natives  of 
Ceylon.  Mr.  Geach  has  seen  Malays  when  terrified  turn 
pale  and  shake;  and  Mr.  Brough  Smyth  states  that  a 
native  Australian  "being  on  one  occasion  much  fright- 
ened, showed  a  complexion  as  nearly  approaching  to  what 
we  call  paleness,  as  can  well  be  conceived  in  the  case  of  a 
very  black  man."  Mr.  Dyson  Lacy  has  seen  extreme 
fear  shown  in  an  Australian,  by  a  nervous  twitching  of 
the  hands,  feet,  and  lips;  and  by  the  perspiration  stand- 
ing on  the  skin.  Many  savages  do  not  repress  the  signs 
of  fear  so  much  as  Europeans;  and  they  often  tremble 
greatly.  With  the  Kafir,  Gaika  says,  in  his  rather  quaint 
English,  the  shaking  "  of  the  body  is  much  experienced, 
and  the  eyes  are  widely  open."  With  savages,  the  sphinc- 
ter muscles  are  often  relaxed,  just  as  may  be  observed  in 
much  frightened  dogs,  and  as  I  have  seen  with  monkeys 
when  terrified  by  being  caught. 

The  erection  of  the  hair. — Some  of  the  signs  of  fear 
deserve  a  little  further  consideration.  Poets  continually 
speak  of  the  hair  standing  on  end;  Brutus  says  to  the 
ghost  of  Csesar,  "  that  mak'st  my  blood  cold,  and  my 
hair  to  stare."  And  Cardinal  Beaufort,  after  the  murder 
of  Gloucester  exclaims,  "  Comb  down  his  hair;  look, 
look,  it  stands  upright."    As  I  did  not  feel  sure  whether 


Chap.  XII.  ERECTION  OF  THE  HAIR.  295 

writers  of  fiction  might  not  have  applied  to  man  what 
they  had  often  observed  in  animals,  I  begged  for  informa- 
tion from  Dr.  Crichton  Browne  with  respect  to  the  in- 
sane. He  states  in  answer  that  he  has  repeatedly  seen 
their  hair  erected  under  the  influence  of  sudden  and  ex- 
treme terror.  For  instance,  it  is  occasionally  necessary 
to  inject  morphia  under  the  skin  of  an  insane  woman, 
who  dreads  the  operation  extremely,  though  it  causes 
very  little  pain;  for  she  believes  that  poison  is  being 
introduced  into  her  system,  and  that  her  bones  will  be 
softened,  and  her  flesh  turned  into  dust.  She  becomes 
deadly  pale;  her  limbs  are  stiffened  by  a  sort  of  tetanic 
spasm,  and  her  hair  is  partially  erected  on  the  front  of 
the  head. 

Dr.  Browne  further  remarks  that  the  bristling  of  the 
hair  which  is  so  common  in  the  insane,  is  not  always 
associated  with  terror.  It  is  perhaps  most  frequently 
seen  in  chronic  maniacs,  who  rave  incoherently  and  have 
destructive  impulses;  but  it  is  during  their  paroxysms 
of  violence  that  the  bristling  is  most  observable.  The 
fact  of  the  hair  becoming  erect  under  the  influence  both 
of  rage  and  fear  agrees  perfectly  with  what  we  have  seen 
in  the  lower  animals.  Dr.  Browne  adduces  several  cases 
in  evidence.  Thus  with  a  man  now  in  the  Asylum,  be- 
fore the  recurrence  of  each  maniacal  paroxysm,  "  the  hair 
rises  up  from  his  forehead  like  the  mane  of  a  Shetland 
pony."  He  has  sent  me  photographs  of  two  women, 
taken  in  the  intervals  between  their  paroxysms,  and  he 
adds  with  respect  to  one  of  these  women,  "  that  the  state 
of  her  hair  is  a  sure  and  convenient  criterion  of  her  men- 
tal condition."  I  have  had  one  of  these  photographs 
copied,  and  the  engraving  gives,  if  viewed  from  a  little 
distance,  a  faithful  representation  of  the  original,  with 
the  exception  that  the  hair  appears  rather  too  coarse  and 
too  much  curled.     The  extraordinary  condition  of  the 


296  FEAR.  Chap.  XIL 

hair  in  the  insane  is  due,  not  only  to  its  erection,  but  to 
its  dryness  and  harshness,  consequent  on  the  subcutane- 
ous glands  failing  to  act.    Dr.  Bucknill  has  said  ^^  that  a 


Fig.  19.— From  a  photograph  of  an  insane  woman,  to  show  the  condition  of 
her  hair. 

lunatic  "  is  a  lunatic  to  his  finger's  ends;  "  he  might  have 
added,  and  often  to  the  extremity  of  each  particular  hair. 

Dr.  Browne  mentions  as  an  empirical  confirmation 
of  the  relation  which  exists  in  the  insane  between  the 
state  of  their  hair  and  minds,  that  the  wife  of  a  medical 
man,  who  has  charge  of  a  lady  suffering  from  acute 
melancholia,  with  a  strong  fear  of  death,  for  herself, 
her  husband  and  children,  reported  verbally  to  him 
the  day  before  receiving  my  letter  as  follows,  "  I  think 

Mrs.  will  soon  improve,  for  her  hair  is  getting 

smooth;  and  I  always  notice  that  our  patients  get  better 
whenever  their  hair  ceases  to  be  rough  and  unmanage- 
able." 

Dr.  Browne  attributes  the  persistently  rough  condi- 

*  Quoted  by  Dr.  Maudsley,  '  Body  and  Mind,'  1870,  p.  41. 


Chap.  XII.  ERECTION  OF  THE  HAIR.  297 

tion  of  the  hair  in  many  insane  patients,  in  part  to  their 
minds  being  always  somewhat  disturbed,  and  in  part  to 
the  effects  of  habit, — that  is,  to  the  hair  being  frequently 
and  strongly  erected  during  their  many  recurrent  parox- 
ysms. In  patients  in  whom  the  bristling  of  the  hair  is 
extreme,  the  disease  is  generally  permanent  and  mortal; 
but  in  others,  in  whom  the  bristling  is  moderate,  as  soon 
as  they  recover  their  health  of  mind  the  hair  recovers 
its  smoothness. 

In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  seen  that  with  animals 
the  hairs  are  erected  by  the  contraction  of  minute,  un- 
striped,  and  involuntary  muscles,  which  run  to  each 
separate  follicle.  In  addition  to  this  action,  Mr.  J.  Wood 
has  clearly  ascertained  by  experiment,  as  he  informs 
me,  that  with  man  the  hairs  on  the  front  of  the  head 
which  slope  forwards,  and  those  on  the  back  which  slope 
backwards,  are  raised  in  opposite  directions  by  the  con- 
traction of  the  occipito-frontalis  or  scalp  muscle.  So 
that  this  muscle  seems  to  aid  in  the  erection  of  the  hairs 
on  the  head  of  man,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  homolo- 
gous jt?a57micz<Z2^5  carnosus  aids,  or  takes  the  greater  part, 
in  the  erection  of  the  spines  on  the  backs  of  some  of  the 
lower  animals. 

Contractioji  of  the  platyxma  mynidef^  viu>icle. — This 
muscle  is  spread  over  the  sides  of  the  neck,  extending 
downwards  to  a  little  beneath  the  collar-bones,  and  up- 
wards to  the  lower  part  of  the  cheeks.  A  portion,  called 
the  risorius,  is  represented  in  the  woodcut  (^I)  fig.  2. 
The  contraction  of  this  muscle  draws  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  and  the  lower  parts  of  the  cheeks  downwards  and 
backwards.  It  produces  at  the  same  time  divergent, 
longitudinal,  prominent  ridges  on  the  sides  of  the  neck 
in  the  young;  and,  in  old  thin  persons,  fine  transverse 
wrinkles.  This  muscle  is  sometimes  said  not  to  be  under 
20 


298 


FEAR.  Chap.  XII. 


the  control  of  the  will;  but  almost  every  one,  if  told  to 
draw  the  corners  of  his  mouth  backwards  and  downwards 
with  great  force,  brings  it  into  action.  I  have,  however, 
heard  of  a  man  who  can  voluntarily  act  on  it  only  on  one 
aide  of  his  neck. 

Sir  C.  Bell  ^^  and  others  have  stated  that  this  muscle 
is  strongly  contracted  under  the  influence  of  fear;  and 
Duchenne  insists  so  strongly  on  its  importance  in  the 
expression  of  this  emotion,  that  he  calls  it  the  muscle  of 
fright}^     He  admits,  however,  that  its  contraction  is 
quite  inexpressive  unless  associated  with  widely  open 
eyes  and  mouth.     He  has  given  a  photograph  (copied 
and  reduced  in  the  accompanying  woodcut)  of  the  same 
old  man  as  on  former  occasions,  with  his  eyebrows  strong- 
ly raised,  his  mouth  opened,  and  the  platysma  contracted, 
all  by  means  of  galvanism.     The  original  photograph 
was  shown  to  twenty-four  persons,  and  they  were  sep- 
arately asked,  without  any  explanation  being  given,  what 
expression   was   intended:    twenty   instantly   answered, 
*'  intense  fright  "  or  "  horror;  "  three  said  pain,  and  one 
extreme  discomfort.     Dr.  Duchenne  has  given  another 
photograph  of  the  same  old  man,  with  the  platysma 
contracted,  the  eyes  and  mouth  opened,  and  the  eye- 
brows rendered  oblique,  by  means  of  galvanism.     The 
expression  thus  induced  is  very  striking  (see  Plate  VII. 
fig.  2);  the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  adding  the  appear- 
ance of  great  mental  distress.     The  original  was  showm 
to  fifteen  persons;  twelve  answered  terror  or  horror,  and 
three  agony  or  great  suffering.     From  these  cases,  and 
from  an  examination  of  the  other  photographs  given 
by  Dr.  Duchenne,  together  with  his  remarks  thereon, 
I  think  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  contraction  of 


"  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  168. 

»  Mecanisme  de  la  Phys.  Humaine,  Album,  Legende  xi. 


Chap.  XII.  CONTRACTION  OF  THE  PLATYSMA.  299 

the  platysma  does  add  greatly  to  the  expression  of  fear. 
Nevertheless  this  muscle  ought  hardly  to  be  called  that 
of  fright,  for  its  contraction  is  certainly  not  a  necessary 
concomitant  of  this  slate  of  mind. 


Fig.  20.— Terror,  from  a  photograph  by  Dr.  Duchenne. 


A  man  may  exhibit  extreme  terror  in  the  plainest 
manner  by  death-like  pallor,  by  drops  of  perspiration  on 
his  skin,  and  by  utter  prostration,  with  all  the  muscles 
of  his  body,  including  the  platysma,  completely  relaxed. 
Although  Dr.  Browne  has  often  seen  this  muscle  quiver- 


300  FEAR.  Chap.  XII. 

ing  and  contracting  in  the  insane,  he  has  not  heen  able 
to  connect  its  action  with  any  emotional  condition  in 
them,  though  he  carefully  attended  to  patients  suffering 
from  great  fear.  Mr.  Nicol,  on  the  other  hand,  has  ob- 
served three  cases  in  which  this  muscle  appeared  to  be 
more  or  less  permanently  contracted  under  the  influence 
of  melancholia,  associated  with  much  dread;  but  in  one 
of  these  cases,  various  other  muscles  about  the  neck  and 
head  were  subject  to  spasmodic  contractions. 

Dr.  W.  Ogle  observed  for  me  in  one  of  the  London 
hospitals  about  twenty  patients,  just  before  they  were 
put  under  the  influence  of  chloroform  for  operations. 
They  exhibited  some  trepidation,  but  no  great  terror. 
In  only  four  of  the  cases  was  the  platysma  visibly  con- 
tracted; and  it  did  not  begin  to  contract  until  the  pa- 
tients began  to  cry.  The  muscle  seemed  to  contract  at 
the  moment  of  each  deep-drawn  inspiration;  so  that  it 
is  very  doubtful  whether  the  contraction  depended  at 
all  on  the  emotion  of  fear.  In  a  fifth  case,  the  patient, 
who  was  not  chloroformed,  was  much  terrified;  and  his 
platysma  was  more  forcibly  and  persistently  contracted 
than  in  the  other  cases.  But  even  here  there  is  room 
for  doubt,  for  the  muscle  which  appeared  to  be  unusually 
developed,  was  seen  by  Dr.  Ogle  to  contract  as  the  man 
moved  his  head  from  the  pillow,  after  the  operation  was 
over. 

As  I  felt  much  perplexed  why,  in  any  case,  a  super- 
ficial muscle  on  the  neck  should  be  especially  affected 
by  fear,  I  applied  to  my  many  obliging  correspondents 
for  information  about  the  contraction  of  this  muscle 
under  other  circumstances.  It  would  be  superfluous  to 
give  all  the  answers  which  I  have  received.  They  show 
that  this  muscle  acts,  often  in  a  variable  manner  and 
degree,  under  many  different  conditions.  It  is  violently 
contracted  in  hydrophobia,  and  in  a  somewhat  less  de- 


Chap.  XII.  CONTRACTION  OP  THE  PLATYSMA.     301 

gree  in  lockjaw;  sometimes  in  a  marked  manner  during 
the  insensibility  from  chloroform.  Dr.  W.  Ogle  observed 
two  male  patients,  suffering  from  such  difficulty  in 
breathing,  that  the  trachea  had  to  be  opened,  and  in  both 
the  platysma  was  strongly  contracted.  One  of  these  men 
overheard  the  conversation  of  the  surgeons  surrounding 
him,  and  when  he  was  able  to  speak,  declared  that  he 
had  not  been  frightened.  In  some  other  cases  of  extreme 
difficulty  of  respiration,  though  not  requiring  trache- 
otomy, observed  by  Drs.  Ogle  and  Langstaff,  the  platysma 
was  not  contracted. 

Mr.  J.  Wood,  who  has  studied  with  such  care  the 
muscles  of  the  human  body,  as  shown  by  his  various 
publications,  has  often  seen  the  platysma  contracted  in 
vomiting,  nausea,  and  disgust;  also  in  children  and 
adults  under  the  influence  of  rage, — for  instance,  in 
Irishwomen,  quarrelling  and  brawling  together  with 
angry  gesticulations.  This  may  possibly  have  been  due 
to  their  high  and  angry  tones;  for  I  know  a  lady,  an  ex- 
cellent musician,  who,  in  singing  certain  high  notes, 
always  contracts  her  platysma.  So  does  a  young  man, 
as  I  have  observed,  in  sounding  certain  notes  on  the 
flute.  Mr.  J.  Wood  informs  me  that  he  has  found  the 
platysma  best  developed  in  persons  with  thick  necks  and 
broad  shoulders;  and  that  in  families  inheriting  these 
peculiarities,  its  development  is  usually  associated  with 
much  voluntar}'  power  over  the  homologous  occipito- 
frontalis  muscle,  by  which  the  scalp  can  be  moved. 

None  of  the  foregoing  cases  appear  to  throw  any  light 
on  the  contraction  of  the  platysma  from  fear;  but  it 
is  different,  I  think,  with  the  following  cases.  The 
gentleman  before  referred  to,  who  can  voluntarily  act 
on  this  muscle  only  on  one  side  of  his  neck,  is  positive 
that  it  contracts  on  both  sides  whenever  he  is  startled. 
Evidence  has  already  been  given  showing  that  tliis  mus- 


302  FEAR.  Chap.  XIL 

cle  sometimes  contracts,  perhaps  for  the  sake  of  opening 
the  mouth  widely,  when  the  breathing  is  rendered  diffi- 
cult by  disease,  and  during  the  deep  inspirations  of  cry- 
ing-fits before  an  operation.  Now,  whenever  a  person 
starts  at  any  sudden  sight  or  sound,  he  instantaneously 
draws  a  deep  breath;  and  thus  the  contraction  of  the 
platysma  may  possibly  have  become  associated  with  the 
sense  of  fear.  But  there  is,  I  believe,  a  more  efficient 
relation.  The  first  sensation  of  fear,  or  the  imagination 
of  something  dreadful,  commonly  excites  a  shudder.  I 
have  caught  myself  giving  a  little  involuntary  shudder 
at  a  painful  thought,  and  I  distinctly  perceived  that  my 
platysma  contracted;  so  it  does  if  I  simulate  a  shudder. 
I  have  asked  others  to  act  in  this  manner;  and  in  some 
the  muscle  contracted,  but  not  in  others.  One  of  my 
sons,  whilst  getting  out  of  bed,  shuddered  from  the  cold, 
and,  as  he  happened  to  have  his  hand  on  his  neck,  he 
plainly  felt  that  this  muscle  strongly  contracted.  He 
then  voluntarily  shuddered,  as  he  had  done  on  former 
occasions,  but  the  platysma  was  not  then  affected.  Mr. 
J.  Wood  has  also  several  times  observed  this  muscle  con- 
tracting in  patients,  when  stripped  for  examination,  and 
who  were  not  frightened,  but  shivered  slightly  from  the 
cold.  Unfortunately  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain 
whether,  when  the  whole  body  shakes,  as  in  the  cold  stage 
of  an  ague  fit,  the  platysma  contracts.  But  as  it  cer- 
tainly often  contracts  during  a  shudder;  and  as  a  shud- 
der or  shiver  often  accompanies  the  first  sensation  of 
fear,  we  have,  I  think,  a  clue  to  its  action  in  this  latter 
case.^^     Its  contraction,  however,  is  not  an  invariable 


**  Duchenne  takes,  in  fact,  this  view  (ibid.  p.  45).  as  he 
attributes  the  contraction  of  the  platysma  to  the  shiver- 
ing" of  fear  {frisson  de  la  peur)\  but  he  elsewhere  compares 
the  action  with  that  which  causes  the  hair  of  frigfhtened 
quadrupeds  to  stand  erect;  and  this  can  hardly  be  consid- 
ered as  quite  correct. 


Chap.  XII.      DILATATION  OF  THE  PUPILS.  303 

concomitant  of  fear;  for  it  probably  never  acts  under  the 
influence  of  extreme,  prostrating  terror. 

Dilatation  of  the  Pupils. — Gratiolet  repeatedly  in- 
sists ^*  that  the  pupils  are  enormously  dilated  whenever 
terror  is  felt.  I  have  no  reason  to  doubt  the  accuracy 
of  this  statement,  but  have  failed  to  obtain  confirmatory 
evidence,  excepting  in  the  one  instance  before  given  of 
an  insane  woman  suffering  from  great  fear.  When 
writers  of  fiction  speak  of  the  eyes  being  widely  dilated, 
I  presume  that  they  refer  to  the  eyelids.  Munro's  state- 
ment,^^ that  with  parrots  the  iris  is  affected  by  the  pas- 
sions, independently  of  the  amount  of  light,  seems  to 
bear  on  this  question;  but  Professor  Bonders  informs 
me,  that  he  has  often  seen  movements  in  the  pupils  of 
these  birds  which  he  thinks  may  be  related  to  their  power 
of  accommodation  to  distance,  in  nearly  the  same  manner 
as  our  own  pupils  contract  when  our  eyes  converge  for 
near  vision.  Gratiolet  remarks  that  the  dilated  pupils 
appear  as  if  they  were  gazing  into  profound  darkness. 
No  doubt  the  fears  of  man  have  often  been  excited  in  the 
dark;  but  hardly  so  often  or  so  exclusively,  as  to  account 
for  a  fixed  and  associated  habit  having  thus  arisen.  It 
seems  more  probable,  assuming  that  Gratiolet's  state- 
ment is  correct,  that  the  brain  is  directly  affected  by 
the  powerful  emotion  of  fear  and  reacts  on  the  pupils; 
but  Professor  Bonders  informs  me  that  this  is  an  ex- 
tremely complicated  subject.  I  may  add,  as  possibly 
throwing  light  on  the  subject,  that  Br.  Fyffe,  of  Netley 
Hospital,  has  observed  in  two  patients  that  the  pupils 
were  distinctly  dilated  during  the  cold  stage  of  an  ague 
fit.  Professor  Bonders  has  also  often  seen  dilatation 
of  the  pupils  in  incipient  faintness. 

"  '  De  la  Physionomie/  pp.  51,  256,  346. 

*  As  quoted  in  White's  '  Gradation  in  Man,*  p.  57. 


304  HORROR.  Chap.  XIL 

Horror. — The  state  of  mind  expressed  by  this  term 
implies  terror,  and  is  in  some  cases  almost  synonymous 
with  it.  Many  a  man  must  have  felt,  before  the  blessed 
discovery  of  chloroform,  great  horror  at  the  thought  of 
an  impending  surgical  operation.  He  who  dreads,  as 
well  as  hates  a  man,  will  feel,  as  Milton  uses  the  word, 
a  horror  of  him.  We  feel  horror  if  we  see  any  one,  for 
instance  a  child,  exposed  to  some  instant  and  crushing 
danger.  Almost  every  one  would  experience  the  same 
feeling  in  the  highest  degree  in  witnessing  a  man  being 
tortured  or  going  to  be  tortured.  In  these  cases  there 
is  no  danger  to  ourselves;  but  from  the  power  of  the 
imagination  and  of  sympathy  we  put  ourselves  in  the 
position  of  the  sufferer,  and  feel  something  akin  to  fear. 

Sir  C.  Bell  remarks,^^  that  "  horror  is  full  of  energy; 
the  body  is  in  the  utmost  tension,  not  unnerved  by  fear." 
It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  horror  would  generally 
be  accompanied  by  the  strong  contraction  of  the  brows; 
but  as  fear  is  one  of  the  elements,  the  eyes  and  mouth 
would  be  opened,  and  the  eyebrows  would  be  raised,  as 
far  as  the  antagonistic  action  of  the  corrugators  per- 
mitted this  movement.  Duchenne  has  given  a  photo- 
graph ^^  (fig.  21)  of  the  same  old  man  as  before,  with  his 
eyes  somewhat  staring,  the  eyebrows  partially  raised,  and 
at  the  same  time  strongly  contracted,  the  mouth  opened, 
and  the  platysma  in  action,  all  effected  by  the  means  of 
galvanism.  He  considers  that  the  expression  thus  pro- 
duced shows  extreme  terror  with  horrible  pain  or  torture. 
A  tortured  man,  as  long  as  his  sufferings  allowed  him 
to  feel  any  dread  for  the  future,  would  probably  exhibit 
horror  in  an  extreme  degree.  I  have  shown  the  original 
of  this  photograph  to  twenty-three  persons  of  both  sexes 

*"  '  Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  169. 

"  '  Mecanisme  de  la  Physionomie,'  Album,  pi.  65,  pp. 
44,  45. 


Chap.  XII.  HORROR.  305 

and  various  ages;  and  thirteen  immediately  answered 
horror,  great  pain,  torture,  or  agony;  three  answered 
extreme  fright;  so  that  sixteen  answered  nearly  in 
accordance  with  Duchenne's  belief.  Six,  however, 
said  anger,  guided  no  doubt,  by  the  strongly  con- 
tracted brows,  and  overlooking  the  pecuHarly  opened 
mouth.  One  said  disgust.  On  the  whole,  the  evidence 
indicates  that  we  have  here  a  fairly  good  representation 
of  horror  and  agony.  The  photograph  before  referred 
to  (PI.  VII.  fig.  2)  likewise  exhibits  horror;  but  in  this 
the  oblique  eyebrows  indicate  great  mental  distress  in 
place  of  energy. 

Horror  is  generally  accompanied  by  various  gestures, 
which  differ  in  different  individuals.  Judging  from  pic- 
tures, the  whole  body  is  often  turned  away  or  shrinks; 
or  the  arms  are  violently  protruded  as  if  to  push  away 
some  dreadful  object.  The  most  frequent  gesture,  as  far 
as  can  be  inferred  from  the  action  of  persons  who  en- 
deavour to  express  a  vividly-imagined  scene  of  horror, 
is  the  raising  of  both  shoulders,  with  the  bent  arms 
pressed  closely  against  the  sides  or  chest.  These  move- 
ments are  nearly  the  same  with  those  commonly  made 
when  we  feel  very  cold;  and  they  are  generally  accom- 
panied by  a  shudder,  as  well  as  by  a  deep  expiration  or 
inspiration,  according  as  the  chest  happens  at  the  time 
to  be  expanded  or  contracted.  The  sounds  thus  made 
are  expressed  by  words  like  uh  or  ugh^^  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, obvious  why,  when  we  feel  cold  or  express  a  sense 
of  horror,  we  press  our  bent  arms  against  our  bodies, 
raise  our  shoulders,  and  shudder. 


**  See  remarks  to  this  effect  by  Mr.  Wedg^vood,  in  the 
Introduction  to  his  '  Dictionary  of  Eng-lish  Etymolog-y,'  2nd 
edit.  1872,  p.  xxxvii.  He  shows  by  intermediate  forms  that 
the  sounds  here  referred  to  have  probably  given  rise  to 
many  vs^ords,  such  as  ugly,  huge,  &c. 


306 


CONCLUSION. 


Chap.  XII. 


Fig.  21.— Horror  and  Agony,  copied  from  a  photograph  by  Dr.  Duchenne. 

Conclusion. — I  have  now  endeavoured  to  describe  the 
diversified  expressions  of  fear,  in  its  gradations  from 
mere  attention  to  a  start  of  surprise,  into  extreme  terror 
and  horror.  Some  of  the  signs  may  be  accounted  for 
through  the  principles  of  habit,  association,  and  inherit- 
ance,— such  as  the  wide  opening  of  the  mouth  and  eyes, 
with  upraised  eyebrows,  so  as  to  see  as  quickly  as  possible 
all  around  us,  and  to  hear  distinctly  whatever  sound  may 
reach  our  ears.    For  we  have  thus  habitually  prepared 


Chap.  XII.  CONCLUSION.  307 

ourselves  to  discover  and  encounter  any  danger.  Some 
of  the  other  signs  of  fear  may  likewise  be  accounted  for, 
at  least  in  part,  through  these  same  principles.  Men, 
during  numberless  generations,  have  endeavoured  to  es- 
cape from  their  enemies  or  danger  by  headlong  flight, 
or  by  violently  struggling  with  them;  and  such  great 
exertions  will  have  caused  the  heart  to  beat  rapidly,  the 
breathing  to  be  hurried,  the  chest  to  heave,  and  the  nos- 
trils to  be  dilated.  As  these  exertions  have  often  been 
prolonged  to  the  last  extremity,  the  final  result  will  have 
been  utter  prostration,  pallor,  perspiration,  trembling  of 
all  the  muscles,  or  their  complete  relaxation.  And  now, 
whenever  the  emotion  of  fear  is  strongly  felt,  though  it 
may  not  lead  to  any  exertion,  the  same  results  tend  to 
reappear,  through  the  force  of  inheritance  and  associa- 
tion. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  probable  that  many  or  most  of  the 
above  symptoms  of  terror,  such  as  the  beating  of  the 
heart,  the  trembling  of  the  muscles,  cold  perspiration, 
&c.,  are  in  large  part  directly  due  to  the  disturbed  or 
interrupted  transmission  of  nerve-force  from  the  cerebro- 
spinal system  to  various  parts  of  the  body,  owing  to  the 
mind  being  so  powerfully  affected.  We  may  confidently 
look  to  this  cause,  independently  of  habit  and  associa- 
tion, in  such  cases  as  the  modified  secretions  of  the  in- 
testinal canal,  and  the  failure  of  certain  glands  to  act. 
With  respect  to  the  involuntary  bristling  of  the  hair,  we 
have  good  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  case  of  animals 
this  action,  however  it  may  have  originated,  serves,  to- 
gether with  certain  voluntary  movements,  to  make  them 
appear  terrible  to  their  enemies;  and  as  the  same  invol- 
untary and  voluntary  actions  are  performed  by  animals 
nearly  related  to  man,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  man  has 
retained  through  inheritance  a  relic  of  them,  now  become 
useless.    It  is  certainly  a  remarkable  fact,  that  the  minute 


308  CONCLUSION.  Chap.  XII. 

unstriped  muscles,  by  which  the  hairs  thinly  scattered 
over  man's  almost  naked  body  are  erected,  should  have 
been  preserved  to  the  present  day;  and  that  they  should 
still  contract  under  the  same  emotions,  namely,  terror 
and  rage,  which  cause  the  hairs  to  stand  on  end  in  the 
lower  members  of  the  Order  to  which  man  belongs. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  309 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Self- ATTENTION — Shame — Shyness — Modesty: 
Blushing. 

Nature  of  a  blush — Inheritance — The  parts  of  the  body 
most  affected — Blushing  in  the  various  races  of  man — 
Accompanying-  gestures — Confusion  of  mind — Causes  of 
blushing — Self-attention,  the  fundamental  element — 
Shyness — Shame,  from  broken  moral  laws  and  conven- 
tional rules — Modesty — Theory  of  blushing — Recapitu- 
lation. 

Blushing  is  the  most  peculiar  and  the  most  human 
of  all  expressions.  Monkeys  redden  from  passion,  but  it 
would  require  an  overwhelming  amount  of  evidence  to 
make  us  believe  that  any  animal  could  blush.  The  red- 
dening of  the  face  from  a  blush  is  due  to  the  relaxation 
of  the  muscular  coats  of  the  small  arteries,  by  which 
the  capillaries  become  filled  with  blood;  and  this  de- 
pends on  the  proper  vaso-motor  centre  being  affected. 
No  doubt  if  there  be  at  the  same  time  much  mental  agi- 
tation, the  general  circulation  will  be  affected;  but  it  is 
not  due  to  the  action  of  the  heart  that  the  network  of 
minute  vessels  covering  the  face  becomes  under  a  sense 
of  shame  gorged  with  blood.  We  can  cause  laughing 
by  tickling  the  skin,  weeping  or  frowning  by  a  blow, 
trembling  from  the  fear  of  pain,  and  so  forth;  but  we 
cannot   cause   a   blush,   as   Dr.    Burgess   remarks,^   by 

^  '  The  Physiology  or  Mechanism  of  Blushing,'  1839,  p. 
156.  I  shall  have  occasion  often  to  quote  this  veork  in  the 
present  chapter. 


310 


BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 


any  physical  means, — that  is  hy  any  action  on  the 
body.  It  is  the  mind  which  must  be  affected.  Blush- 
ing is  not  only  involuntary;  but  the  wish  to  restrain  it, 
by  leading  to  self-attention  actually  increases  the  ten- 
dency. 

The  young  blush  much  more  freely  than  the  old,  but 
not  during  infancy,^  which  is  remarkable,  as  we  know 
that  infants  at  a  very  early  age  redden  from  passion.  I 
have  received  authentic  accounts  of  two  little  girls 
blushing  at  the  ages  of  between  two  and  three  years; 
and  of  another  sensitive  child,  a  year  older,  blushing, 
when  reproved  for  a  fault.  Many  children,  at  a  some- 
what more  advanced  age  blush  in  a  strongly  marked 
manner.  It  appears  that  the  mental  powers  of  infants 
are  not  as  yet  sufficiently  developed  to  allow  of  their 
blushing.  Hence,  also,  it  is  that  idiots  rarely  blush. 
Dr.  Crichton  Browne  observed  for  me  those  under  his 
care,  but  never  saw  a  genuine  blush,  though  he 
has  seen  their  faces  flush,  apparently  from  joy, 
when  food  was  placed  before  them,  and  from  anger. 
Nevertheless  some,  if  not  utterly  degraded,  are  capable 
of  blushing.  A  microcephalous  idiot,  for  instance,  thir- 
teen years  old,  whose  eyes  brightened  a  little  when  he 
was  pleased  or  amused,  has  been  described  by  Dr.  Behn,^ 
as  blushing  and  turning  to  one  side,  when  undressed  for 
medical  examination. 

Women  blush  much  more  than  men.  It  is  rare  to 
see  an  old  man,  but  not  nearly  so  rare  to  see  an  old 
woman  blushing.  The  blind  do  not  escape.  Laura 
Bridgman,  born  in  this  condition,  as  well  as  completely 


'  Dr.  Burg-ess,  ibid.  p.  56.  At  p.  33  he  also  remarks  on 
women  blushing"  more  freely  than  men,  as  stated  below. 

2  Quoted  by  Vogt,  '  Memoire  sur  les  Microcephales,'  1867, 
p.  20.  Dr.  Burgess  (ibid.  p.  56)  doubts  whether  idiots  ever 
blush. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  311 

deaf,  blushes.*  The  Eev.  R.  H.  Blair,  Principal  of  the 
"Worcester  College,  informs  me  that  three  children  born 
blind,  out  of  seven  or  eight  then  in  the  Asylum,  are 
great  blushers.  The  blind  are  not  at  first  conscious  that 
they  are  observed,  and  it  is  a  most  important  part  of  their 
education,  as  Mr.  Blair  informs  me,  to  impress  this 
knowledge  on  their  minds;  and  the  impression  thus 
gained  would  greatly  strengthen  the  tendency  to  blush, 
by  increasing  the  habit  of  self-attention. 

The  tendency  to  blush  is  inherited.  Dr.  Burgess 
gives  the  case  ^  of  a  family  consisting  of  a  father,  mother, 
and  ten  children,  all  of  whom,  without  exception,  were 
prone  to  blush  to  a  most  painful  degree.  The  children 
were  grown  up;  "  and  some  of  them  were  sent  to  travel 
in  order  to  w^ear  away  this  diseased  sensibility,  but  noth- 
ing was  of  the  slightest  avail."  Even  peculiarities  in 
blushing  seem  to  be  inherited.  Sir  James  Paget,  whilst 
examining  the  spine  of  a  girl,  was  struck  at  her  singular 
manner  of  blushing;  a  big  splash  of  red  appeared  first 
on  one  cheek,  and  then  other  splashes,  variously  scat- 
tered over  the  face  and  neck.  He  subsequently  asked 
tli£  mother  whether  her  daughter  always  blushed  in 
this  peculiar  manner;  and  was  answered,  "  Yes,  she 
takes  after  me."  Sir  J.  Paget  then  perceived  that  by 
asking  this  question  he  had  caused  the  mother  to 
blush;  and  she  exhibited  the  same  peculiarity  as  her 
daughter. 

In  most  cases  the  face,  ears  and  neck  are  the  sole 
parts  which  redden;  but  many  persons,  whilst  blushing 
intensely,  feel  that  their  whole  bodies  grow  hot  and 
tingle;  and  this  shows  that  the  entire  surface  must  be 
in  some  manner  affected.     Blushes  are  said  sometimes 


*  Lieber  '  On  the  Vocal  Sounds,'  &c.;    Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions, 1851,  vol.  ii.  p.  6. 

*  Ibid.  p.  182. 


312 


BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIII. 


to  commence  on  the  forehead,  but  more  commonly  on 
the  cheeks,  afterwards  spreading  to  the  ears  and  neck.* 
In  two  Albinos  examined  by  Dr.  Burgess,  the  blushes 
commenced  by  a  small  circumscribed  spot  on  the  cheeks, 
over  the  parotidean  plexus  of  nerves,  and  then  increased 
into  a  circle;  between  this  blushing  circle  and  the  blush 
on  the  neck  there  was  an  evident  line  of  demarcation; 
although  both  arose  simultaneously.  The  retina,  which 
is  naturally  red  in  the  Albino,  invariably  increased  at 
the  same  time  in  redness.'^  Every  one  must  have  noticed 
how  easily  after  one  blush  fresh  blushes  chase  each  other 
over  the  face.  Blushing  is  preceded  by  a  peculiar  sensa- 
tion in  the  skin.  According  to  Dr.  Burgess  the  redden- 
ing of  the  skin  is  generally  succeeded  by  a  slight  pallor, 
which  shows  that  the  capillary  vessels  contract  after  di- 
lating. In  some  rare  cases  paleness  instead  of  redness 
is  caused  under  conditions  which  would  naturally  induce 
a  blush.  For  instance,  a  young  lady  told  me  that  in  a 
large  and  crowded  party  she  caught  her  hair  so  firm- 
ly on  the  button  of  a  passing  servant,  that  it  took 
some  time  before  she  could  be  extricated;  from  her  sen- 
sations she  imagined  that  she  had  blushed  crimson; 
but  was  assured  by  a  friend  that  she  had  turned  ex- 
tremely pale. 

I  was  desirous  to  learn  how  far  down  the  body  blushes 
extend;  and  Sir  J.  Paget,  who  necessarily  has  frequent 
opportunities  for  observation,  has  kindly  attended  to 
this  point  for  me  during  two  or  three  years.  He  finds 
that  with  women  who  blush  intensely  on  the  face, 
ears,  and  nape  of  neck,  the  blush  does  not  commonly 
extend  any  lower  down  the  body.  It  is  rare  to  see  it  as 
low  down  as  the  collar-bones  and  shoulder-blades;  and 
he  has  never  himself  seen  a  single  instance  in  which  it 

«  Moreau,  in  edit,  of  1820  of  Lavater,  vol.  iv.  p.  303. 

'  Burg-ess,  ibid.  p.  38,  on  paleness  after  blushing,  p.  177. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  315 

extended  below  the  upper  part  of  the  chest.  He  has  also 
noticed  that  blushes  sometimes  die  away  downwards, 
not  gradually  and  insensibly,  but  by  irregular  ruddy 
blotches.  Dr.  Langstaff  has  likewise  observed  for  me 
several  women  whose  bodies  did  not  in  the  least  redden 
while  their  faces  were  crimsoned  with  blushes.  With 
the  insane,  some  of  whom  appear  to  be  particularly  liable 
to  blushing,  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  has  several  times 
seen  the  blush  extend  as  far  down  as  the  collar-bones, 
and  in  two  instances  to  the  breasts.  He  gives  me  the 
case  of  a  married  woman,  aged  twenty-seven,  who  suf- 
fered from  epilepsy.  On  the  morning  after  her  arrival 
in  the  Asylum,  Dr.  Browne,  together  with  his  assistants, 
visited  her  whilst  she  was  in  bed.  The  moment  that  he 
approached,  she  blushed  deeply  over  her  cheeks  and 
temples;  and  the  blush  spread  quickly  to  her  ears.  She 
was  much  agitated  and  tremulous.  He  unfastened  the 
collar  of  her  chemise  in  order  to  examine  the  state  of 
her  lungs;  and  then  a  brilliant  blush  rushed  over  her 
chest,  in  an  arched  line  over  the  upper  third  of  each 
breast,  and  extended  downwards  between  the  breasts 
nearly  to  the  ensiform  cartilage  of  the  sternum.  This 
case  is  interesting,  as  the  blush  did  not  thus  extend 
downwards  until  it  became  intense  by  her  attention  being 
drawn  to  this  part  of  her  person.  As  the  examination 
proceeded  she  became  composed,  and  the  blush  disap- 
peared; but  on  several  subsequent  occasions  the  same 
phenomena  were  observed. 

The  foregoing  facts  show  that,  as  a  general  rule, 
with  English  women,  blushing  does  not  extend  beneath 
the  neck  and  upper  part  of  the  chest.  Nevertheless  Sir 
J.  Paget  informs  me  that  he  has  lately  heard  of  a  case, 
on  which  he  can  fully  rely,  in  which  a  little  girl,  shocked 
by  what  she  imagined  to  be  an  act  of  indelicacy,  blushed 
all  over  her  abdomen  and  the  upper  parts  of  her  legs. 
21 


314  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 

Moreau  also  *  relates,  on  the  authority  of  a  celebrated 
painter,  that  the  chest,  shoulders,  arms,  and  .whole  body 
of  a  girl,  who  unwillingly  consented  to  serve  as  a  model, 
reddened  when  she  was  first  divested  of  her  clothes. 

It  is  a  rather  curious  question  why,  in  most  cases  the 
face,  ears,  and  neck  alone  redden,  inasmuch  as  the  whole 
surface  of  the  body  often  tingles  and  grows  hot.  This 
seems  to  depend,  chiefly,  on  the  face  and  adjoining  parts 
of  the  skin  having  been  habitually  exposed  to  the  air, 
light,  and  alternations  of  temperature,  by  which  the 
small  arteries  not  only  have  acquired  the  habit  of  readily 
dilating  and  contracting,  but  appear  to  have  become 
unusually  developed  in  comparison  with  other  parts  of 
the  surface.^  It  is  probably  owing  to  this  same  cause, 
as  M.  Moreau  and  Dr.  Burgess  have  remarked,  that  the 
face  is  so  liable  to  redden  under  various  circumstances, 
such  as  a  fever-fit,  ordinary  heat,  violent  exertion,  anger, 
a  slight  blow,  &c.;  and  on  the  other  hand  that  it  is  liable 
to  grow  pale  from  cold  and  fear,  and  to  be  discoloured 
during  pregnancy.  The  face  is  also  particularly  liable 
to  be  affected  by  cutaneous  complaints,  by  small-pox, 
erysipelas,  &c.  This  view  is  likewise  supported  by  the 
fact  that  the  men  of  certain  races,  who  habitually  go 
nearly  naked,  often  blush  over  their  arms  and  chests  and 
even  down  to  their  waists.  A  lady,  who  is  a  great  blusher, 
informs  Dr.  Crichton  Browne,  that  when  she  feels 
ashamed  or  is  agitated,  she  blushes  over  her  face,  neck, 
wrists,  and  hands, — that  is,  over  all  the  exposed  portions 
of  her  skin.  Nevertheless  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
the  habitual  exposure  of  the  skin  of  the  face  and  neck, 
and  its  consequent  power  of  reaction  under  stimulants 
of  all  kinds,  is  bv  itself  sufficient  to  account  for  the  much 


«  See  Lavat«r,  edit,  of  1820,  vol.  iv.  p.  303. 
'  Burg-ess,  ibid.  pp.  114,  122.    Moreau  in  Lavater,  ibid.  vol. 
iv.  p.  293. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  315 

greater  tendency  in  English  women  of  these  parts  than 
of  others  to  blush;  for  the  hands  are  well  supplied  with 
nerves  and  small  vessels,  and  have  been  as  much  ex- 
posed to  the  air  as  the  face  or  neck,  and  yet  the  hands 
rarely  blush.  We  shall  presently  see  that  the  attention 
of  the  mind  having  been  directed  much  more  frequently 
and  earnestly  to  the  face  than  to  any  other  part  of  the 
body,  probably  affords  a  sufficient  explanation. 

Blushing  in  the  various  races  of  man. — The  small 
vessels  of  the  face  become  filled  with  blood,  from  the 
emotion  of  shame,  in  almost  all  the  races  of  man,  though 
in  the  very  dark  races  no  distinct  change  of  colour  can 
be  perceived.  Blushing  is  evident  in  all  the  Aryan  na- 
tions of  Europe,  and  to  a  certain  extent  with  those  of 
India.  But  Mr.  Erskine  has  never  noticed  that  the  necks 
of  the  Hindoos  are  decidedly  affected.  With  the  Lep- 
chas  of  Sikhim,  Mr.  Scott  has  often  observed  a  faint 
blush  on  the  cheeks,  base  of  the  ears,  and  sides  of  the 
neck,  accompanied  by  sunken  eyes  and  lowered  head. 
This  has  occurred  when  he  has  detected  them  in  a  false- 
hood, or  has  accused  them  of  ingratitude.  The  pale, 
sallow  complexions  of  these  men  render  a  blush  much 
more  conspicuous  than  in  most  of  the  other  natives  of 
India.  With  the  latter,  shame,  or  it  may  be  in  part  fear, 
is  expressed,  according  to  Mr.  Scott,  much  more  plainly 
by  the  head  being  averted  or  bent  down,  with  the  eyes 
wavering  or  turned  askant,  than  by  any  change  of  colour 
in  the  skin. 

The  Semitic  races  blush  freely,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  from  their  general  similitude  to  the  Ar^^ans. 
Thus  with  the  Jews,  it  is  said  in  the  Book  of  Jeremiah 
(chap.  vi.  15),  "Nay,  they  were  not  at  all  ashamed, 
neither  could  they  blush."  Mrs.  Asa  Gray  saw  an  Arab 
managing  his  boat  clumsily  on  the  Nile,  and  when 


316  BLUSHING.  Cbjlf.  XIIL 

laughed  at  by  his  companions,  "  he  blushed  quite  to  the 
back  of  his  neck."  Lady  Duff  Gordon  remarks  that  a 
young  Arab  blushed  on  coming  into  her  presence.^^ 

Mr.  Swinhoe  has  seen  the  Chinese  blushing,  but  he 
thinks  it  is  rare;  yet  they  have  the  expression  "  to  red- 
den with  shame."  Mr.  Geach  informs  me  that  the  Chi- 
nese settled  in  Malacca  and  the  native  Malays  of  the  in- 
terior both  blush.  Some  of  these  people  go  nearly  naked, 
and  he  particularly  attended  to  the  downward  extension 
of  the  blush.  Omitting  the  cases  in  which  the  face  alone 
was  seen  to  blush,  Mr.  Geach  observed  that  the  face, 
arms,  and  breast  of  a  Chinaman,  aged  24  years,  reddened 
from  shame;  and  with  another  Chinese,  when  asked  why 
he  had  not  done  his  work  in  better  style,  the  whole  body 
was  similarly  affected.  In  two  Malays  ^^  he  saw  the  face, 
neck,  breast,  and  arms  blushing;  and  in  a  third  Malay 
(a  Bugis)  the  blush  extended  down  to  the  waist. 

The  Polynesians  blush  freely.  The  Eev.  Mr,  Stack 
has  seen  hundreds  of  instances  with  the  New  Zealanders. 
The  following  case  is  worth  giving,  as  it  relates  to  an 
old  man  who  was  unusually  dark-coloured  and  partly 
tattooed.  After  having  let  his  land  to  an  Englishman 
for  a  small  yearly  rental,  a  strong  passion  seized  him  to 
buy  a  gig,  which  had  lately  become  the  fashion  with  the 
Maoris.  He  consequently  wished  to  draw  all  the  rent 
for  four  years  from  his  tenant,  and  consulted  Mr.  Stack 
whether  he  could  do  so.  The  man  was  old,  clumsy,  poor, 
and  ragged,  and  the  idea  of  his  driving  himself  about  in 
his  carriage  for  display  amused  Mr.  Stack  so  much  that 
he  could  not  help  bursting  out  into  a  laugh;  and  then 
"the  old  man  blushed  up  to  the  roots  of  his  hair." 

^°  '  Letters  from  Eg-ypt,'  1865,  p.  66.  Lady  Gordon  is  mis- 
taken when  she  says  Malays  and  Mulattoes  never  blush. 

"  Capt.  Osborn  ('  Qiiedah,'  p.  199),  in  speaking-  of  a 
Malay,  whom  he  reproached  for  cruelty,  says  he  was  glad 
to  see  that  the  man  blushed. 


Ch^.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  317 

Forster  says  that  "  you  may  easily  distinguish  a  spread- 
ing blush  ^'  on  the  cheeks  of  the  fairest  women  in  Ta- 
hiti.^^  The  natives  also  of  several  of  the  other  archi- 
pelagoes in  the  Pacific  have  been  seen  to  blush. 

Mr.  Washington  Matthews  has  often  seen  a  blush  on 
the  faces  of  the  young  squaws  belonging  to  various  wild 
Indian  tribes  of  North  America.  At  the  opposite  ex- 
tremity of  the  continent  in  Tierra  del  Fuego,  the  natives, 
according  to  Mr.  Bridges,  "  blush  much,  but  chiefly  in 
regard  to  women;  but  they  certainly  blush  also  at  their 
own  personal  appearance."  This  latter  statement  agrees 
with  what  I  remember  of  the  Fuegian,  Jemmy  Button, 
who  blushed  when  he  was  quizzed  about  the  care  which 
he  took  in  polishing  his  shoes,  and  in  otherwise  adorn- 
ing himself.  With  respect  to  the  Aymara  Indians  on 
the  lofty  plateaus  of  Bolivia,  Mr.  Forbes  says,"  that 
from  the  colour  of  their  skins  it  is  impossible  that  their 
blushes  should  be  as  clearly  visible  as  in  the  white  races; 
still  under  such  circumstances  as  would  raise  a  blush 
in  us,  "  there  can  always  be  seen  the  same  expression  of 
modesty  or  confusion;  and  even  in  the  dark,  a  rise  of 
temperature  of  the  skin  of  the  face  can  be  felt,  exactly 
as  occurs  in  the  European."   With  the  Indians  who  in- 

"  J.  R.  Forster,  '  Observations  during-  a  Voyag-e  round 
the  World,'  4to,  1778,  p.  229.  Waitz  g-ives  ('  Introduction  to 
Anthropology,'  Eng-,  translat.  1863,  vol.  i.  p.  135)  references 
for  other  islands  in  the  Pacific.  See,  also,  Dampier  '  On  the 
Blushing"  of  the  Tunquinese  '  (vol.  ii.  p.  40) ;  but  I  have  not 
consulted  this  work.  Waitz  quotes  Berg-mann,  that  the 
Kalmucks  do  not  blush,  but  this  may  be  doubted  after 
what  we  have  seen  with  respect  to  the  Chinese.  He  also 
quotes  Roth,  who  denies  that  the  Abyssinians  are  capable 
of  blushing-.  Unfortunately,  Capt.  Speedy,  who  lived  so 
long  with  the  Abyssinians,  has  not  answered  my  inquiry 
on  this  head.  Lastly,  I  must  add  that  the  Rajah  Brooke 
has  never  observed  the  least  sign  of  a  blush  with  the  Dyaks 
of  Borneo;  on  the  contrary  under  circumstances  which 
would  excite  a  blush  in  us,  they  assert  "  that  they  feel  the 
blood  drawn  from  their  faces." 

"  Transact,  of  the  Ethnological  Soc.  1870,  vol.  ii.  p.  16. 


318  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIH. 

habit  the  hot,  equable,  and  damp  parts  of  South  America, 
the  skin  apparently  does  not  answer  to  mental  excite- 
ment so  readily  as  with  the  natives  of  the  northern  and 
southern  parts  of  the  continent,  who  have  long  been 
exposed  to  great  vicissitudes  of  climate;  for  Humboldt 
quotes  without  a  protest  the  sneer  of  the  Spaniard, 
"  How  can  those  be  trusted,  who  know  not  how  to 
blush? '^^*  Von  Spix  and  Martins,  in  speaking  of  the 
aborigines  of  Brazil,  assert  that  they  cannot  properly  be 
said  to  blush;  "  it  was  only  after  long  intercourse  with 
the  whites,  and  after  receiving  some  education,  that  we 
perceived  in  the  Indians  a  change  of  colour  expressive 
of  the  emotions  of  their  minds."  ^^  It  is,  however,  in- 
credible that  the  power  of  blushing  could  have  thus 
originated;  but  the  habit  of  self -attention,  consequent 
on  their  education  and  new  course  of  life,  would  have 
much  increased  any  innate  tendency  to  blush. 

Several  trustworthy  observers  have  assured  me  that 
they  have  seen  on  the  faces  of  negroes  an  appearance 
resembling  a  blush,  under  circumstances  which  would 
have  excited  one  in  us,  though  their  skins  were  of  an 
ebony-black  tint.  Some  describe  it  as  blushing  brown, 
but  most  say  that  the  blackness  becomes  more  intense. 
An  increased  supply  of  blood  in  the  skin  seems  in  some 
manner  to  increase  its  blackness;  thus  certain  exan- 
thematous  diseases  cause  the  affected  places  in  the  negro 
to  appear  blacker,  instead  of,  as  with  us,  redder.^^  The 
skin,  perhaps,  from  being  rendered  more  tense  by  the 

"  Huniboldt,  '  Personal  Xarrative,'  Eng-.  translat.  vol. 
iii.  p.  229. 

^'  Quoted  by  Prichard,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Mankind,  4th  edit. 
1851,  vol.  i.  p.  271. 

^^  See,  on  this  head,  Burg-ess,  ibid.  p.  32.  Also  Waitz, 
'  Introduction  to  Anthropolog-y,'  Eng-.  edit,  vol,  i.  p.  135. 
Moreau  g-ives  a  detailed  account  ('  Lavater,'  1820,  torn.  iv. 
p.  302)  of  the  blushing-  of  a  Madag-ascar  neg^ress-slave  v^rhen 
forced  by  her  brutal  master  to  exhibit  her  naked  bosom. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  319 

filling  of  the  capillaries,  would  reflect  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent tint  to  what  it  did  before.  That  the  capillaries  of 
the  face  in  the  negro  become  filled  with  blood,  under 
the  emotion  of  shame,  we  may  feel  confident;  because 
a  perfectly  characterized  albino  negress,  described  by 
Buffon,^'  showed  a  faint  tinge  of  crimson  on  her  cheeks 
when  she  exhibited  herself  naked.  Cicatrices  of  the  skin 
remain  for  a  long  time  white  in  the  negro,  and  Dr. 
Burgess,  who  had  frequent  opportunities  of  observing 
a  scar  of  this  kind  on  the  face  of  a  negress,  distinctly  saw 
that  it  "  invariably  became  red  whenever  she  was  abrupt- 
ly spoken  to,  or  charged  with  any  trivial  offence."  ^^ 
The  blush  could  be  seen  proceeding  from  the  circum- 
ference of  the  scar  towards  the  middle,  but  it  did  not 
reach  the  centre.  Mulattoes  are  often  great  blushers, 
blush  succeeding  blush  over  their  faces.  From  these 
facts  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  negroes  blush,  although 
no  redness  is  visible  on  the  skin. 

I  am  assured  by  Gaika  and  by  Mrs.  Barber  that  the 
Kafirs  of  South  Africa  never  blush;  but  this  may  only 
mean  that  no  change  of  colour  is  distinguishable.  Gaika 
adds  that  under  the  circumstances  which  would  make  a 
European  blush,  his  countrymen  "  look  ashamed  to  keep 
their  heads  up." 

It  is  asserted  by  four  of  my  informants  that  the 
Australians,  who  are  almost  as  black  as  negroes,  never 
blush.  A  fifth  answers  doubtfully,  remarking  that  only 
a  very  strong  blush  could  be  seen,  on  account  of  the  dirty 
state  of  their  skins.  Three  observers  state  that  they  do 
blush;  ^^  Mr.  S.  Wilson  adding  that  this  is  noticeable 

"  Quoted  by  Prichard,  Phys.  Hist,  of  Mankind,  4th  edit. 
1851,  vol.  i.  p.  225. 

^*  Burgess,  ibid.  p.  31.  On  mulattoes  blushing-,  see  p.  33. 
I  have  received  similar  accounts  w^ith  respect  to  mulattoes. 

"  Barring-ton  also  says  that  the  Australians  of  New 
South  Wales  blush,  as  quoted  by  Waitz,  ibid.  p.  135. 


320  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIII 

only  under  a  strong  emotion,  and  when  the  skin  is  not 
too  dark  from  long  exposure  and  want  of  cleanliness. 
Mr.  Lang  answers,  "  I  have  noticed  that  shame  almost 
always  excites  a  blush,  which  frequently  extends  as  low 
as  the  neck."  Shame  is  also  shown,  as  he  adds,  "  by  the 
eyes  being  turned  from  side  to  side."  As  Mr.  Lang  was 
a  teacher  in  a  native  school,  it  is  probable  that  he  chiefly 
observed  children;  and  we  know  that  they  blush  more 
than  adults.  Mr.  G.  Taplin  has  seen  half-castes  blush- 
ing, and  he  says  that  the  aborigines  have  a  word  expres- 
sive of  shame.  Mr.  Hagenauer,  who  is  one  of  those  who 
has  never  observed  the  Australians  to  blush,  says  that 
he  has  "  seen  them  looking  down  to  the  ground  on  ac- 
count of  shame; "  and  the  missionary,  Mr.  Bulmer,  re- 
marks that  though  "  I  have  not  been  able  to  detect 
anything  like  shame  in  the  adult  aborigines,  I  have 
noticed  that  the  eyes  of  the  children,  when  ashamed, 
present  a  restless,  watery^  appearance,  as  if  they  did  not 
know  where  to  look." 

The  facts  now  given  are  sufficient  to  show  that  blush- 
ing, whether  or  not  there  is  any  change  of  colour,  is 
common  to  most,  probably  to  all,  of  the  races  of  man. 

Movements  and  gestures  ivhich  accompany  Blushiyig. 
— Under  a  keen  sense  of  shame  there  is  a  strong  desire 
for  concealment.^^  We  turn  away  the  whole  body,  more 
especially  the  face,  which  we  endeavour  in  some  manner 
to  hide.    An  ashamed  person  can  hardly  endure  to  meet 


^  Mr.  Wedg^vood  says  (Diet,  of  English  Etymolog-y,  vol. 
iii.  1865,  p.  155)  that  the  word  shame  "  may  well  originate 
in  the  idea  of  shade  or  concealment,  and  may  be  illustrated 
by  the  Low  German  scheme,  shade  or  shadow."  Gratiolet 
(De  la  Phys.  pp.  357--362)  has  a  good  discussion  on  the 
gestures  accompanying  shame;  but  some  of  his  remark^ 
seem  to  me  rather  fanciful.  See,  also,  Burgess  (ibid.  pp. 
69,  134)  on  the  same  subject. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  321 

the  gaze  of  those  present,  so  that  he  almost  invariably 
casts  down  his  eyes  or  looks  askant.  As  there  generally 
exists  at  the  same  time  a  strong  wish  to  avoid  the  ap- 
pearance of  shame,  a  vain  attempt  is  made  to  look  di- 
rect at  the  person  who  causes  this  feeling;  and  the  an- 
tagonism between  these  opposite  tendencies  leads  to  vari- 
ous restless  movements  in  the  eyes.  I  have  noticed  two 
ladies  who,  whilst  blushing,  to  which  they  are  very  liable, 
have  thus  acquired,  as  it  appears,  the  oddest  trick  of  in- 
cessantly blinking  their  eyelids  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  An  intense  blush  is  sometimes  accompanied 
by  a  slight  effusion  of  tears;  ^^  and  this,  I  presume,  is  due 
to  the  lacrymal  glands  partaking  of  the  increased  supply 
of  blood,  which  we  know  rushes  into  the  capillaries  of 
the  adjoining  parts,  including  the  retina. 

Many  writers,  ancient  and  modern,  have  noticed  the 
foregoing  movements;  and  it  has  already  been  shown 
that  the  aborigines  in  various  parts  of  the  world  often 
exhibit  their  shame  by  looking  downwards  or  askant, 
or  by  restless  movements  of  their  eyes.  Ezra  cries  out 
(ch.  ix.  6),  "  0,  my  God!  I  am  ashamed,  and  blush  to 
lift  up  my  head  to  thee,  my  God."  In  Isaiah  (ch.  1.  6) 
we  meet  with  the  words,  "  I  hid  not  my  face  from 
shame."  Seneca  remarks  (Epist.  xi.  5)  "  that  the  Roman 
players  hang  down  their  heads,  fix  their  eyes  on  the 
ground  and  keep  them  lowered,  but  are  unable  to  blush 
in  acting  shame."  x\ccording  to  Macrobius,  who  lived 
in  the  fifth  century  ('  Saturnalia,'  b.  vii.  c.  11),  "  Nat- 
ural philosophers  assert  that  nature  being  moved  by 
shame  spreads  the  blood  before  herself  as  a  veil,  as  we 


"  Burg-ess,  ibid.  pp.  181,  182.  Boerhaave  also  noticed 
(as  quoted  by  Gratiolet,  ibid.  p.  361)  the  tendencj'-  to  the 
secretion  of  tears  during-  intense  blushing-.  Mr.  Bulmer, 
as  we  have  seen,  speaks  of  the  "  watery  eyes  "  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  Australian  aborigines  when  ashamed. 


322  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 

see  any  one  blushing  often  puts  his  hands  before  his 
face."  Shakspeare  makes  Marcus  ('  Titus  Andronicus/ 
act  ii,  sc.  5)  say  to  his  niece,  "Ah!  now  thou  tum'st 
away  thy  face  for  shame."  A  lady  informs  me  that  she 
found  in  the  Lock  Hospital  a  girl  whom  she  had  for- 
merly known,  and  who  had  become  a  wretched  cast- 
away, and  the  poor  creature,  when  approached,  hid  her 
face  under  the  bed-clothes,  and  could  not  be  persuaded 
to  uncover  it.  We  often  see  little  children,  when  shy  or 
ashamed,  turn  away,  and  still  standing  up,  bury  their 
faces  in  their  mother's  gown;  or  they  throw  themselves 
face  downwards  on  her  lap. 

Confusion  of  mind. — Most  persons,  whilst  blushing 
intensely,  have  their  mental  powers  confused.  This  is 
recognized  in  such  common  expressions  as  "  she  was 
covered  with  confusion,"  Persons  in  this  condition  lose 
their  presence  of  mind,  and  utter  singularly  inappro- 
priate remarks.  The}^  are  often  much  distressed,  stam- 
mer, and  make  awkward  movements  or  strange  grimaces. 
In  certain  cases  involuntary  twitchings  of  some  of  the 
facial  muscles  may  be  observed.  I  have  been  informed 
by  a  young  lady,  who  blushes  excessively,  that  at  such 
times  she  does  not  even  know  what  she  is  saying.  When 
it  was  suggested  to  her  that  this  might  be  due  to  her 
distress  from  the  consciousness  that  her  blushing  was 
noticed,  she  answered  that  this  could  not  be  the  case, 
"  as  she  had  sometimes  felt  quite  as  stupid  when  blush- 
ing at  a  thought  in  her  own  room." 

I  will  give  an  instance  of  the  extreme  disturbance 
of  mind  to  which  some  sensitive  men  are  liable.  A  gen- 
tleman, on  whom  I  can  rely,  assured  me  that  he  had 
been  an  eye-witness  of  the  following  scene: — K  small 
dinner-party  was  given  in  honour  of  an  extremely  shy 
man,  who,  when  he  rose  to  return  thanks,  rehearsed  the 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  323 

speech,  which  he  had  evidently  learnt  by  heart,  in  abso- 
lute silence,  and  did  not  utter  a  single  word;  but  he  acted 
as  if  he  were  speaking  with  much  emphasis.  His  friends, 
perceiving  how  the  case  stood,  loudly  applauded  the 
imaginary  bursts  of  eloquence,  whenever  his  gestures 
indicated  a  pause,  and  the  man  never  discovered  that 
he  had  remained  the  whole  time  completely  silent.  On 
the  contrary,  he  afterwards  remarked  to  my  friend,  with 
much  satisfaction,  that  he  thought  he  had  succeeded 
uncommonly  well. 

When  a  person  is  much  ashamed  or  very  shy,  and 
blushes  intensely,  his  heart  beats  rapidly  and  his  breath- 
ing is  disturbed.  This  can  hardly  fail  to  affect  the  circu- 
lation of  the  blood  within  the  brain,  and  perhaps  the 
mental  powers.  It  seems  however  doubtful,  judging 
from  the  still  more  powerful  influence  of  anger  and  fear 
on  the  circulation,  whether  we  can  thus  satisfactorily 
account  for  the  confused  state  of  mind  in  persons  whilst 
blushing  intensely. 

The  true  explanation  apparently  lies  in  the  intimate 
sympathy  which  exists  between  the  capillary  circulation 
of  the  surface  of  the  head  and  face,  and  that  of  the  brain. 
On  applying  to  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne  for  information, 
he  has  given  me  various  facts  bearing  on  this  subject. 
When  the  sympathetic  nerve  is  divided  on  one  side  of 
the  head,  the  capillaries  on  this  side  are  relaxed  and 
become  filled  with  blood,  causing  the  skin  to  redden  and 
to  grow  hot,  and  at  the  same  time  the  temperature  within 
the  cranium  on  the  same  side  rises.  Inflammation  of  the 
membranes  of  the  brain  leads  to  the  engorgement  of  the 
face,  ears,  and  eyes  with  blood.  The  first  stage  of  an 
epileptic  fit  appears  to  be  the  contraction  of  the  vessels 
of  the  brain,  and  the  first  outward  manifestation  is  an  ex- 
treme pallor  of  countenance.  Erysipelas  of  the  head 
commonly  induces  delirium.    Even  the  relief  given  to 


324  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 

a  severe  headache  by  burning  the  skin  with  strong  lotion, 
depends,  I  presume,  on  the  same  principle. 

Dr.  Browne  has  often  administered  to  his  patients 
the  vapour  of  the  nitrite  of  amyl,^^  which  has  the  singu- 
lar property  of  causing  vivid  redness  of  the  face  in  from 
thirty  to  sixty  seconds.  This  flushing  resembles  blush- 
ing in  almost  every  detail:  it  begins  at  several  distinct 
points  on  the  face,  and  spreads  till  it  involves  the  whole 
surface  of  the  head,  neck,  and  front  of  the  chest;  but 
has  been  observed  to  extend  only  in  one  case  to  the  ab- 
domen. The  arteries  in  the  retina  become  enlarged; 
the  eyes  glisten,  and  in  one  instance  there  was  a  slight 
effusion  of  tears.  The  patients  are  at  first  pleasantly 
stimulated,  but,  as  the  flushing  increases,  they  become 
confused  and  bewildered.  One  woman  to  whom  the 
vapour  had  often  been  administered  asserted  that,  as 
soon  as  she  grew  hot,  she  grew  muddled.  With  persons 
just  commencing  to  blush  it  appears,  judging  from  their 
bright  eyes  and  lively  behaviour,  that  their  mental  pow- 
ers are  somewhat  stimulated.  It  is  only  when  the  blush- 
ing is  excessive  that  the  mind  grows  confused.  Therefore 
it  would  seem  that  the  capillaries  of  the  face  are  affected, 
both  during  the  inhalation  of  the  nitrite  of  amyl  and 
during  blushing,  before  that  part  of  the  brain  is  affected 
on  which  the  mental  powers  depend. 

Conversely  when  the  brain  is  primarily  affected,  the 
circulation  of  the  skin  is  so  in  a  secondary  manner.  Dr. 
Browne  has  frequently  observed,  as  he  informs  me,  scat- 
tered red  blotches  and  mottlings  on  the  chests  of  epileptic 
patients.  In  these  cases,  when  the  skin  on  the  thorax  or 
abdomen  is  gently  rubbed  with  a  pencil  or  other  object, 
or,  in  strongly-marked  cases,  is  merely  touched  by  the 

"  See  also  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne's  Memoir  on  this  sub- 
ject in  the 'West  Riding  Lunatic  Asylum  Medical  Report,' 
1871,  pp.  95-^8. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  325 

finger,  the  surface  becomes  suffused  in  less  than  half  a 
minute  with  bright  red  marks,  which  spread  to  some 
distance  on  each  side  of  the  touched  point,  and  persist 
for  several  minutes.  These  are  the  cerebral  macules  of 
Trousseau;  and  they  indicate,  as  Dr.  Browne  remarks, 
a  highly  modified  condition  of  the  cutaneous  vascular 
system.  If,  then,  there  exists,  as  cannot  be  doubted,  an 
intimate  sympathy  between  the  capillary  circulation  in 
that  part  of  the  brain  on  which  our  mental  powers  de- 
pend, and  in  the  skin  of  the  face,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
the  moral  causes  which  induce  intense  blushing  should 
likewise  induce,  independently  of  their  own  disturbing 
influence,  much  confusion  of  mind. 

TTie  Nature  of  the  Mental  States  which  induce  Blush- 
ing.— These  consist  of  shyness,  shame,  and  modesty; 
the  essential  element  in  all  being  self-attention.  Many 
reasons  can  be  assigned  for  believing  that  originally 
self-attention  directed  to  personal  appearance,  in  relation 
to  the  opinion  of  others,  was  the  exciting  cause;  the 
same  effect  being  subsequently  produced,  through  the 
force  of  association,  by  self -attention  in  relation  to  moral 
conduct.  It  is  not  the  simple  act  of  reflecting  on  our 
own  appearance,  but  the  thinking  what  others  think  of 
us,  which  excites  a  blush.  In  absolute  solitude  the  most 
sensitive  person  would  be  quite  indifferent  about  his  ap- 
pearance. We  feel  blame  or  disapprobation  more  acutely 
than  approbation;  and  consequently  depreciatory  re- 
marks or  ridicule,  whether  of  our  appearance  or  conduct, 
causes  us  to  blush  much  more  readily  than  does  praise. 
But  undoubtedly  praise  and  admiration  are  highly  effi- 
cient: a  pretty  girl  blushes  when  a  man  gazes  intently 
at  her,  though  she  may  know  perfectly  well  that  he  is 
not  depreciating  her.  Many  children,  as  well  as  old  and 
sensitive  persons  blush,  when  they  are  much  praised. 


326  BLUSHING.  CHi.p.  XIIL 

Hereafter  the  question  will  be  discussed,  how  it  has 
arisen  that  the  consciousness  that  others  are  attending 
to  our  personal  appearance  should  have  led  to  the  capil- 
laries, especially  those  of  the  face,  instantly  becoming 
filled  with  blood. 

My  reasons  for  believing  that  attention  directed  to 
personal  appearance,  and  not  to  moral  conduct,  has  been 
the  fundamental  element  in  the  acquirement  of  the  habit 
of  blushing,  will  now  be  given.  They  are  separately 
light,  but  combined  possess,  as  it  appears  to  me,  con- 
siderable weight.  It  is  notorious  that  nothing  makes 
a  shy  person  blush  so  much  as  any  remark,  however 
slight,  on  his  personal  appearance.  One  cannot  notice 
even  the  dress  of  a  woman  much  given  to  blushing, 
wihout  causing  her  face  to  crimson.  It  is  sufiicient 
to  stare  hard  at  some  persons  to  make  them,  as  Col- 
eridge remarks,  blush, — "  account  for  that  he  who 
can."  23 

With  the  two  albinos  observed  by  Dr.  Burgess,^* 
"  the  slightest  attempt  to  examine  their  peculiarities 
invariably  "  caused  them  to  blush  deeply.  Women  are 
much  more  sensitive  about  their  personal  appearance 
than  men  are,  especially  elderly  women  in  comparison 
with  elderly  men,  and  they  blush  much  more  freely. 
The  young  of  both  sexes  are  much  more  sensitive  on 
this  same  head  than  the  old,  and  they  also  blush  much 
more  freely  than  the  old.  Children  at  a  very  early  age 
do  not  blush;  nor  do  they  show  those  other  signs  of  self- 
consciousness  which  generally  accompany  blushing;  and 
it  is  one  of  their  chief  charms  that  they  think  nothing 
about  what  others  think  of  them.  At  this  early  age 
they  will  stare  at  a  stranger  with  a  fixed  gaze  and  un- 

"   In   a  discussion   on   so-called   animal   magnetism   in 
*  Table  Talk,'  vol.  i. 
"  Ibid.  p.  40. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  327 

blinking  eyes,  as  on  an  inanimate  object,  in  a  manner 
which  we  elders  cannot  imitate. 

It  is  plain  to  every  one  that  young  men  and  women 
are  highly  sensitive  to  the  opinion  of  each  other  with 
reference  to  their  personal  appearance;  and  they  blush 
incomparably  more  in  the  presence  of  the  opposite  sex 
than  in  that  of  their  own.^^  A  young  man,  not  very 
liable  to  blush,  will  blush  intensely  at  any  slight  ridicule 
of  his  appearance  from  a  girl  whose  judgment  on  any 
important  subject  he  would  disregard.  No  happy  pair 
of  young  lovers,  valuing  each  other^s  admiration  and 
love  more  than  anything  else  in  the  world,  probably  ever 
courted  each  other  without  many  a  blush.  Even  the 
barbarians  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  according  to  Mr.  Bridges, 
blush  "  chiefly  in  regard  to  women,  but  certainly  also  at 
their  own  personal  appearance." 

Of  all  parts  of  the  body,  the  face  is  most  considered 
and  regarded,  as  is  natural  from  its  being  the  chief  seat 
of  expression  and  the  source  of  the  voice.  It  is  also  the 
chief  seat  of  beauty  and  of  ugliness,  and  throughout 
the  world  is  the  most  ornamented.^^  The  face,  there- 
fore, will  have  been  subjected  during  many  generations 
to  much  closer  and  more  earnest  self-attention  than  any 
other  part  of  the  body;  and  in  accordance  with  the  prin- 
ciple here  advanced  we  can  understand  why  it  should 
be  the  most  liable  to  blush.  Although  exposure  to  alter- 
nations of  temperature,  &c.,  has  probably  much  in- 
creased the  power  of  dilatation  and  contraction  in  the 
capillaries  of  the  face  and  adjoining  parts,  yet  this  by 


"  Mr.  Bain  ('  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,'  1865,  p.  65) 
remarks  on  "  the  shyness  of  manners  which  is  induced  be- 
tween the  sexes  ....  from  the  influence  of  mutual  re- 
g-ard,  by  the  apprehension  on  either  side  of  not  standing 
well  with  the  other." 

"  See,  for  evidence  on  this  subject,  '  The  Descent  of 
Man,'  &c.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  71,  341. 


328  BLUISHING.  Chap.  XIII. 

itself  will  hardly  account  for  these  parts  blushing  much 
more  than  the  rest  of  the  body;  for  it  does  not  explain 
the  fact  of  the  hands  rarely  blushing.  With  Europeans 
the  whole  body  tingles  slightly  when  the  face  blushes 
intensely;  and  with  the  races  of  men  who  habitually 
go  nearly  naked,  the  blushes  extend  over  a  much  larger 
surface  than  with  us.  These  facts  are,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, intelligible,  as  the  self-attention  of  primeval  man, 
as  well  as  of  the  existing  races  which  still  go  naked,  will 
not  have  be^n  so  exclusively  confined  to  their  faces,  as 
is  the  case  with  the  people  who  now  go  clothed. 

We  have  seen  that  in  all  parts  of  the  world  persons 
w^ho  feel  shame  for  some  moral  delinquency,  are  apt  to 
avert,  bend  down,  or  hide  their  faces,  independently  of 
any  thought  about  their  personal  appearance.  The  ob- 
ject can  hardly  be  to  conceal  their  blushes,  for  the  face 
is  thus  averted  or  hidden  under  circumstances  which 
exclude  any  desire  to  conceal  shame,  as  when  guilt  is 
fully  confessed  and  repented  of.  It  is,  however,  probable 
that  primeval  man  before  he  had  acquired  much  moral 
sensitiveness  would  have  been  highly  sensitive  about  his 
personal  appearance,  at  least  in  reference  to  the  other 
sex,  and  he  would  consequently  have  felt  distress  at  any 
depreciatory  remarks  about  his  appearance;  and  this 
is  one  form  of  shame.  And  as  the  face  is  the  part  of  the 
body  which  is  most  regarded,  it  is  intelligible  that  any 
one  ashamed  of  his  personal  appearance  would  desire 
to  conceal  this  part  of  his  body.  The  habit  having  been 
thus  acquired,  would  naturally  be  carried  on  when  shame 
from  strictly  moral  causes  was  felt;  and  it  is  not  easy 
otherwise  to  see  why  under  these  circumstances  there 
should  be  a  desire  to  hide  the  face  more  than  any  other 
part  of  the  body. 

The  habit,  so  general  with  every  one  who  feels 
ashamed,  of  turning  away,  or  lowering  his  eyes,  or  rest- 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  329 

lessly  moving  them  from  side  to  side,  probably  follows 
from  each  glance  directed  towards  those  present,  bring- 
ing home  the  conviction  that  he  is  intently  regarded; 
and  he  endeavours,  by  not  looking  at  those  present,  and 
especially  not  at  their  eyes,  momentarily  to  escape  from 
this  painful  conviction. 

Shyness. — This  odd  state  of  mind,  often  called 
shamefacedness,  or  false  shame,  or  7nauvaise  ho?ite,  ap- 
pears to  be  one  of  the  most  efficient  of  all  the  causes  of 
blushing.  Sh^mess  is,  indeed,  chiefly  recognized  by  the 
face  reddening,  by  the  eyes  being  averted  or  cast  down, 
and  by  awkward,  nervous  movements  of  the  body.  Many 
a  woman  blushes  from  this  cause,  a  hundred,  perhaps 
a  thousand  times,  to  once  that  she  blushes  from  having 
done  anything  deserving  blame,  and  of  which  she  is  truly 
ashamed.  Shyness  seems  to  depend  on  sensitiveness  to 
the  opinion,  whether  good  or  bad,  of  others,  more  espe- 
cially with  respect  to  external  appearance.  Strangers 
neither  know  nor  care  anything  about  our  conduct  or 
character,  but  they  may,  and  often  do,  criticize  our  ap- 
pearance: hence  shy  persons  are  particularly  apt  to  be 
shy  and  to  blush  in  the  presence  of  strangers.  The  con- 
sciousness of  anything  peculiar,  or  even  new,  in  the 
dress,  or  any  slight  blemish  on  the  person,  and  more 
especially  on  the  face — points  which  are  likely  to  at- 
tract the  attention  of  strangers — makes  the  shy  intoler- 
ably shy.  On  the  other  hand,  in  those  cases  in  which 
conduct  and  not  personal  appearance  is  concerned,  we 
are  much  more  apt  to  be  shy  in  the  presence  of  acquaint- 
ances, whose  judgment  we  in  some  degree  value,  than 
in  that  of  strangers.  A  physician  told  me  that  a  young 
man,  a  wealthy  duke,  with  whom  he  had  travelled  as 
medical  attendant,  blushed  like  a  girl,  when  he  paid  him 
his  fee;  yet  this  young  man  probably  would  not  have 


330  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 

blushed  and  been  shy,  had  he  been  paying  a  bill  to  a 
tradesman.  Some  persons,  however,  are  so  sensitive, 
that  the  mere  act  of  speaking  to  almost  any  one  is  suf- 
ficient to  rouse  their  self -consciousness,  and  a  slight  blush 
is  the  result. 

Disapprobation  or  ridicule,  from  our  sensitiveness  on 
this  head,  causes  shyness  and  blushing  much  more  readily 
than  does  approbation;  though  the  latter  with  some  per- 
sons is  highly  efficient.  The  conceited  are  rarely  shy; 
for  they  value  themselves  much  too  highly  to  expect 
depreciation.  Why  a  proud  man  is  often  shy,  as  appears 
to  be  the  case,  is  not  so  obvious,  unless  it  be  that,  with 
all  his  self-reliance,  he  really  thinks  much  about  the 
opinion  of  others,  although  in  a  disdainful  spirit.  Per- 
sons who  are  exceedingly  shy  are  rarely  shy  in  the  pres- 
ence of  those  with  whom  they  are  quite  familiar,  and 
of  whose  good  opinion  and  sympathy  they  are  perfectly 
assured; — for  instance,  a  girl  in  the  presence  of  her 
mother.  I  neglected  to  inquire  in  my  printed  paper 
whether  shyness  can  be  detected  in  the  different  races  of 
man;  but  a  Hindoo  gentleman  assured  Mr.  Erskine  that 
it  is  recognizable  in  his  countrymen. 

Shyness,  as  the  derivation  of  the  word  indicates  in 
several  languages,^^  is  closely  related  to  fear;  yet  it  is 
distinct  from  fear  in  the  ordinary  sense.  A  shy  man  no 
doubt  dreads  the  notice  of  strangers,  but  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  afraid  of  them;  he  may  be  as  bold  as  a  hero 
in  battle,  and  yet  have  no  self-confidence  about  trifles 
in  the  presence  of  strangers.  Almost  every  one  is  ex- 
tremely nervous  when  first  addressing  a  public  assem- 
bly, and  most  men  remain  so  throughout  their  lives; 
but  this  appears  to  depend  on  the  consciousness  of  a 


"  H.  Wedgr^'ood,  Diet.  Eng-lish  Etymology,  vol.  iii.  1865, 
p.  184.    So  with  the  Latin  word  verecundus. 


Chap.  XIH.  BLUSHING.  331 

great  coming  exertion,  with  its  associated  effects  on  the 
system,  rather  than  on  shyness;  ^*  although  a  timid  or 
shy  man  no  doubt  suffers  on  such  occasions  infinitely 
more  than  another.  With  very  young  children  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  distinguish  between  fear  and  shyness;  but  this 
latter  feeling  with  them  has  often  seemed  to  me  to  par- 
take of  the  character  of  the  wildness  of  an  untamed 
animal.  Shyness  comes  on  at  a  very  early  age.  In  one 
of  my  own  children,  when  two  years  and  three  months 
old,  I  saw  a  trace  of  what  certainly  appeared  to  be  shy- 
ness, directed  towards  myself  after  an  absence  from 
home  of  only  a  week.  This  was  shown  not  by  a  blush, 
but  by  the  eyes  being  for  a  few  minutes  slightly  averted 
from  me.  I  have  noticed  on  other  occasions  that  shyness 
or  shamefacedness  and  real  shame  are  exhibited  in  the 
eyes  of  young  children  before  they  have  acquired  the 
power  of  blushing. 

As  shyness  apparently  depends  on  self-attention,  we 
can  perceive  how  right  are  those  who  maintain  that 
reprehending  children  for  shyness,  instead  of  doing 
them  any  good,  does  much  harm,  as  it  calls  their  atten- 
tion still  more  closely  to  themselves.  It  has  been  well 
urged  that  "  nothing  hurts  young  people  more  than  to 
be  watched  continually  about  their  feelings,  to  have 
their  countenances  scrutinized,  and  the  degrees  of  their 
sensibility  measured  by  the  surve}dng  eye  of  the  unmerci- 
ful spectator.  Under  the  constraint  of  such  examina- 
tions they  can  think  of  nothing  but  that  they  are  looked 
at,  and  feel  nothing  but  shame  or  apprehension."  ^^ 

"  Mr.  Bain  ('  The  Emotions  and  the  Will,'  p.  64)  has  dis- 
cussed the  "  abashed  "  feeling's  experienced  on  these  occa- 
sions, as  well  as  the  stage-fright  of  actors  unused  to  the 
stage.  Mr.  Bain  apj>arently  attributes  these  feelings  to 
simple  apprehension  or  dread. 

^  *  Essays  on  Practical  p]ducation,'  by  Maria  and  R.  L. 
Edgeworth,  new  edit.  vol.  ii.  1822,  p.  38.  Dr.  Burgess  (ibid, 
p.  187)  insists  strongly  to  the  same  effect. 


332  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIII. 

Moral  causes :  guilt. — With  respect  to  blushing  from 
strictly  moral  causes,  we  meet  with  the  same  fundamental 
principle  as  before,  namely,  regard  for  the  opinion  of 
others.  It  is  not  the  conscience  which  raises  a  blush, 
for  a  man  may  sincerely  regret  some  slight  fault  com- 
mitted in  solitude,  or  he  may  suffer  the  deepest  remorse 
for  an  undetected  crime,  but  he  will  not  blush.  "  I 
blush,"  says  Dr.  Burgess,^^  "  in  the  presence  of  my  ac- 
cusers." It  is  not  the  sense  of  guilt,  but  the  thought 
that  others  think  or  know  us  to  be  guilty  which  crim- 
sons the  face.  A  man  may  feel  thoroughly  ashamed  at 
having  told  a  small  falsehood,  without  blushing;  but  if 
he  even  suspects  that  he  is  detected  he  will  instantly 
blush,  especially  if  detected  by  one  whom  he  reveres. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  man  may  be  convinced  that 
God  witnesses  all  his  actions,  and  he  may  feel  deeply 
conscious  of  some  fault  and  pray  for  forgiveness;  but 
this  will  not,  as  a  lady  who  is  a  great  blusher  believes, 
ever  excite  a  blush.  The  explanation  of  this  difference 
between  the  knowledge  by  God  and  man  of  our  actions 
lies,  I  presume,  in  man's  disapprobation  of  immoral 
conduct  being  somewhat  akin  in  nature  to  his  deprecia- 
tion of  our  personal  appearance,  so  that  through  associa- 
tion both  lead  to  similar  results;  whereas  the  disappro- 
bation of  God  brings  up  no  such  association. 

Many  a  person  has  blushed  intensely  when  accused 
of  some  crime,  though  completely  innocent  of  it.  Even 
the  thought,  as  the  lady  before  referred  to  has  observed 
to  me,  that  others  think  that  we  have  made  an  unkind  or 
stupid  remark,  is  amply  sufficient  to  cause  a  blush,  al- 
though we  know  all  the  time  that  we  have  been  com- 
pletely misunderstood.  An  action  may  be  meritorious 
or  of  an  indifferent  nature,  but  a  sensitive  person,  if  he 

**  '  Essays  on  Practical  Education,'  by  Maria  and  R.  L. 
Edgeworth,  new  edit.  vol.  ii.  1822,  p.  50. 


Chap.  XIIL  BLUSHING.  333 

suspects  that  others  take  a  different  view  of  it,  will  blush. 
For  instance,  a  lady  by  herself  may  give  money  to  a 
beggar  without  a  trace  of  a  blush,  but  if  others  are  pres- 
ent, and  she  doubts  whether  they  approve,  or  suspects 
that  they  think  her  influenced  by  display,  she  will  blush. 
So  it  will  be,  if  she  offers  to  relieve  the  distress  of  a  de- 
cayed gentlewoman,  more  particularly  of  one  whom  she 
had  previously  known  under  better  circumstances,  as 
she  cannot  then  feel  sure  how  her  conduct  will  be  viewed. 
But  such  cases  as  these  blend  into  shyness. 

Breaches  of  etiquette. — The  rules  of  etiquette  always 
refer  to  conduct  in  the  presence  of,  or  towards  others. 
They  have  no  necessary  connection  with  the  moral  sense, 
and  are  often  meaningless.  Nevertheless  as  they  depend 
on  the  fixed  custom  of  our  equals  and  superiors,  whose 
opinion  we  highly  regard,  they  are  considered  almost 
as  binding  as  are  the  laws  of  honour  to  a  gentleman. 
Consequently  the  breach  of  the  laws  of  etiquette,  that 
is,  any  impoliteness  or  gaucherie,  any  impropriety,  or  an 
inappropriate  remark,  though  quite  accidental,  will 
cause  the  most  intense  blushing  of  which  a  man  is  capa- 
ble. Even  the  recollection  of  such  an  act,  after  an  in- 
terval of  many  years,  will  make  the  whole  body  to  tingle. 
So  strong,  also,  is  the  power  of  sympathy  that  a  sensitive 
person,  as  a  lady  has  assured  me,  will  sometimes  blush 
at  a  flagrant  breach  of  etiquette  by  a  perfect  stranger, 
though  the  act  may  in  no  way  concern  her. 

Modesty. — This  is  another  powerful  agent  in  exciting 
blushes;  but  the  word  modesty  includes  very  different 
states  of  the  mind.  It  implies  humility,  and  we  often 
judge  of  this  by  persons  being  greatly  pleased  and  blush- 
ing at  slight  praise,  or  by  being  annoyed  at  praise  which 
seems  to  them  too  high  according  to  their  own  humble 
standard  of  themselves.     Blushing  here  has  the  usual 


334  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIII. 

signification  of  regard  for  the  opinion  of  others.  But 
modesty  frequently  relates  to  acts  of  indelicacy;  and  in- 
delicacy is  an  affair  of  etiquette,  as  we  clearly  see  with 
the  nations  that  go  altogether  or  nearly  naked.  He  who 
is  modest,  and  blushes  easily  at  acts  of  this  nature,  does 
so  because  they  are  breaches  of  a  firmly  and  wisely  estab- 
lished etiquette.  This  is  indeed  shown  by  the  derivation 
of  the  word  modest  from  modiis,  a  measure  or  standard  of 
behaviour.  A  blush  due  to  this  form  of  modesty  is,  more- 
over, apt  to  be  intense,  because  it  generally  relates  to 
the  opposite  sex;  and  we  have  seen  how  in  all  cases  our 
liability  to  blush  is  thus  increased.  We  apply  the  term 
'  modest,'  as  it  would  appear,  to  those  who  have  an 
humble  opinion  of  themselves,  and  to  those  who  are 
extremely  sensitive  about  an  indelicate  word  or  deed, 
simply  because  in  both  cases  blushes  are  readily  excited, 
for  these  two  frames  of  mind  have  nothing  else  in  com- 
mon. Shyness  also,  from  this  same  cause,  is  often  mis- 
taken for  modesty  in  the  sense  of  humility. 

Some  persons  flush  up,  as  I  have  observed  and  have 
been  assured,  at  any  sudden  and  disagreeable  recollec- 
tion. The  commonest  cause  seems  to  be  the  sudden 
remembrance  of  not  having  done  something  for  another 
person  which  had  been  promised.  In  this  case  it  may 
be  that  the  thought  passes  half  unconsciously  through 
the  mind,  "  What  will  he  think  of  me?  "  and  then  the 
flush  would  partake  of  the  nature  of  a  true  blush.  But 
whether  such  flushes  are  in  most  cases  due  to  the  capil- 
lary circulation  being  affected,  is  very  doubtful;  for  we 
must  remember  that  almost  every  strong  emotion,  such 
as  anger  or  great  joy,  acts  on  the  heart,  and  causes  the 
face  to  redden. 

The  fact  that  blushes  may  be  excited  in  absolute 
solitude  seems  opposed  to  the  view  here  taken,  namely 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  335 

that  the  habit  originally  arose  from  thinking  about  what 
others  think  of  us.  Several  ladies,  who  are  great  blush- 
ers, are  unanimous  in  regard  to  solitude;  and  some  of 
them  believe  that  they  have  blushed  in  the  dark.  From 
what  Mr.  Forbes  has  stated  with  respect  to  the  Aymaras, 
and  from  my  own  sensations,  I  have  no  doubt  that  this 
latter  statement  is  correct.  Shakspeare,  therefore,  erred 
when  he  made  Juliet,  who  was  not  even  by  herself,  say 
to  Romeo  (act  ii.  sc.  2): — 

"  Thou  know'st  the  mask  of  night  is  on  my  face; 
Else  would  a  maiden  blush  bepaint  my  cheek, 
For  that  which  thou  hast  heard  me  speak  to-night." 

But  when  a  blush  is  excited  in  solitude,  the  cause  almost 
always  relates  to  the  thoughts  of  others  about  us — to 
acts  done  in  their  presence,  or  suspected  by  them;  or 
again  when  we  reflect  what  others  would  have  thought 
of  us  had  they  known  of  the  act.  Nevertheless  one  or 
two  of  my  informants  believe  that  they  have  blushed 
from  shame  at  acts  in  no  way  relating  to  others.  If  this 
be  so,  we  must  attribute  the  result  to  the  force  of  in- 
veterate habit  and  association,  under  a  state  of  mind 
closely  analogous  to  that  which  ordinarily  excites  a 
blush;  nor  need  we  feel  surprise  at  this,  as  even  sym- 
pathy with  another  person  who  commits  a  flagrant  breach 
of  etiquette  is  believed,  as  we  have  just  seen,  sometimes 
to  cause  a  blush. 

Finally,  then,  I  conclude  that  blushing, — whether 
due  to  shyness — to  shame  for  a  real  crime — to  shame 
from  a  breach  of  the  laws  of  etiquette — to  modesty  from 
humility — to  modesty  from  an  indelicacy — depends  in 
all  cases  on  the  same  principle;  this  principle  being  a 
sensitive  regard  for  the  opinion,  more  particularly  for 
the  depreciation  of  others,  primarily  in  relation  to  our 
personal  appearance,  especially  of  our  faces;  and  sec- 


336  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 

ondarily,  through  the  force  of  association  and  habit,  in 
relation  to  the  opinion  of  others  on  our  conduct. 

Theory  of  Blushing.— ^e  have  now  to  consider,  why 
should  the  thought  that  others  are  thinking  about  us 
affect  our  capillary  circulation?  Sir  C.  Bell  insists  ^^ 
that  blushing  "  is  a  provision  for  expression,  as  may  be 
inferred  from  the  colour  extending  only  to  the  surface 
of  the  face,  neck,  and  breast,  the  parts  most  exposed. 
It  is  not  acquired;  it  is  from  the  beginning."  Dr. 
Burgess  believes  that  it  was  designed  by  the  Creator  in 
''  order  that  the  soul  might  have  sovereign  power  of  dis- 
playing in  the  cheeks  the  various  internal  emotions  of 
the  moral  feelings; "  so  as  to  serve  as  a  check  on  our- 
selves, and  as  a  sign  to  others,  that  we  were  violating 
rules  which  ought  to  be  held  sacred.  Gratiolet  merely 
remarks, — "  Or,  comme  il  est  dans  Fordre  de  la  nature 
que  Tetre  social  le  plus  intelligent  soit  aussi  le  plus  in- 
telligible, cette  faculty  de  rongeur  et  de  paleur  qui  dis- 
tingue rhomme,  est  un  signe  naturel  de  sa  haute  per- 
fection." 

The  belief  that  blushing  was  specially  designed  by 
the  Creator  is  opposed  to  the  general  theory  of  evolu- 
tion, which  is  now  so  largely  accepted;  but  it  forms 
no  part  of  my  duty  here  to  argue  on  the  general  ques- 
tion. Those  who  believe  in  design,  w411  find  it  difficult 
to  account  for  shyness  being  the  most  frequent  and 
efficient  of  all  the  causes  of  blushing,  as  it  makes  the 
blusher  to  suffer  and  the  beholder  uncomfortable,  with- 
out being  of  the  least  service  to  either  of  them.  They 
will  also  find  it  difficult  to  account  for  negroes  and  other 
dark-coloured  races  blushing,  in  w^hom  a  change  of 
colour  in  the  skin  is  scarcely  or  not  at  all  visible. 

"  Bell,  'Anatomy  of  Expression,'  p.  95.  Burgess,  as 
quoted  below,  ibid.  p.  49.    Gratiolet,  De  la  Phys.  p.  94. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  337 

No  doubt  a  slight  blush  adds  to  the  beauty  of  a  maid- 
en^s  face;  and  the  Circassian  women  who  are  capable 
of  blushing,  invariably  fetch  a  higher  price  in  the  serag- 
lio of  the  Sultan  than  less  susceptible  women.^^  But 
the  firmest  believer  in  the  efficacy  of  sexual  selection  will 
hardly  suppose  that  blushing  was  acquired  as  a  sexual 
ornament.  This  view  would  also  be  opposed  to  what 
has  just  been  said  about  the  dark-coloured  races  blush- 
ing in  an  invisible  manner. 

The  hypothesis  which  appears  to  me  the  most  prob- 
able, though  it  may  at  first  seem  rash,  is  that  attention 
closely  directed  to  any  part  of  the  body  tends  to  inter- 
fere with  the  ordinary  and  tonic  contraction  of  the  small 
arteries  of  that  part.  These  vessels,  in  consequence,  be- 
come at  such  times  more  or  less  relaxed,  and  are  in- 
stantly filled  with  arterial  blood.  This  tendency  will 
have  been  much  strengthened,  if  frequent  attention  has 
been  paid  during  many  generations  to  the  same  part, 
owing  to  nerve-force  readily  flowing  along  accustomed 
channels,  and  by  the  power  of  inheritance.  Whenever 
we  believe  that  others  are  depreciating  or  even  consid- 
ering our  personal  appearance,  our  attention  is  vividly 
directed  to  the  outer  and  visible  parts  of  our  bodies; 
and  of  all  such  parts  we  are  most  sensitive  about  our 
faces,  as  no  doubt  has  been  the  case  during  many  past 
generations.  Therefore,  assuming  for  the  moment  that 
the  capillary  vessels  can  be  acted  on  by  close  attention, 
those  of  the  face  will  have  become  eminently  susceptible. 
Through  the  force  of  association,  the  same  effects  will 
tend  to  follow  whenever  we  think  that  others  are  con- 
sidering or  censuring  our  actions  or  character. 

As  the  basis  of  this  theory  rests  on  mental  attention 
having  some  power  to  influence  the  capillary  circula- 

'*  On  the  authority  of  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague; 
see  Burgess,  ibid.  p.  43. 


338  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 

tion,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  considerable  body 
of  details,  bearing  more  or  less  directly  on  this  subject. 
Several  observers/^  who  from  their  wide  experience  and 
knowledge  are  eminently  capable  of  forming  a  sound 
judgment,  are  convinced  that  attention  or  consciousness 
(which  latter  term  Sir  H.  Holland  thinks  the  more  ex- 
plicit) concentrated  on  almost  any  part  of  the  body  pro- 
duces some  direct  physical  effect  on  it.  This  applies 
to  the  movements  of  the  involuntary  muscles,  and  of  the 
voluntary  muscles  when  acting  involuntarily, — to  the 
secretion  of  the  glands, — to  the  activity  of  the  senses  and 
sensations, — and  even  to  the  nutrition  of  parts. 

It  is  known  that  the  involuntary  movements  of  the 
heart  are  affected  if  close  attention  be  paid  to  them. 
Gratiolet  ^*  gives  the  case  of  a  man,  who  by  continually 
watching  and  counting  his  own  pulse,  at  last  caused 
one  beat  out  of  every  six  to  intermit.  On  the  other 
hand,  my  father  told  me  of  a  careful  observer,  who  cer- 
tainly had  heart-disease  and  died  from  it,  and  who  posi- 
tively stated  that  his  pulse  was  habitually  irregular  to 
an  extreme  degree;  yet  to  his  great  disappointment  it 

^^  In  Eng-land,  Sir  H.  Holland  was,  I  believe,  the  first  to 
consider  the  influence  of  mental  attention  on  various  parts 
of  the  body,  in  his  '  !Medical  Xotes  and  Reflections.'  1839, 
p.  64.  This  essay,  much  enlarg-ed,  was  reprinted  by  Sir  H. 
Holland  in  his  '  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology,'  1858,  p. 
79,  from  which  work  I  always  quote.  At  nearly  the  same 
time,  as  well  as  subsequently,  Prof.  Laycock  discussed  the 
same  subject:  see  '  Edinburgh  Medical  and  Surgical  Jour- 
nal,' 1839,  July,  pp.  17--22.  Also  his  '  Treatise  on  the  Xerv- 
ous  Diseases  of  Women,'  1840,  p.  110;  and  '  Mind  and  Brain,' 
vol.  ii.  1860,  p.  327.  Dr.  Carpenter's  views  on  mesmerism 
have  a  nearly  similar  bearing.  The  great  physiologist 
Miiller  treated  ('  Elements  of  Physiology,'  Eng.  translat. 
vol.  ii.  pp.  937,  1085)  of  the  influence  of  the  attention  on 
the  senses.  Sir  J.  Paget  discusses  the  influence  of  the  mind 
on  the  nutrition  of  parts,  in  his  '  Lectures  on  Surgical  Pa- 
thology,' 1853,  vol.  1.  p.  39:  I  quote  from  the  3rd  edit,  re- 
vised by  Prof.  Turner,  1870,  p.  28.  See,  also,  Gratiolet,  De 
la  Phys.  pp.  283-287. 

•*  De  la  Phys.  p.  283. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING. 

invariably  became  regular  as  soon  as  my  father  entered 
the  room.  Sir  H.  Holland  remarks/^  that  "  the  effect 
upon  the  circulation  of  a  part  from  the  consciousness 
suddenly  directed  and  fixed  upon  it,  is  often  obvious  and 
immediate."  Professor  Laycock,  who  has  particularly 
attended  to  phenomena  of  this  nature/*^  insists  that 
"when  the  attention  is  directed  to  any  portion  of  the 
body,  innervation  and  circulation  are  excited  locally, 
and  the  functional  activity  of  that  portion  developed." 

It  is  generally  believed  that  the  peristaltic  move- 
ments of  the  intestines  are  influenced  by  attention  being 
paid  to  them  at  fixed  recurrent  periods;  and  these  move- 
ments depend  on  the  contraction  of  unstriped  and  in- 
voluntary muscles.  The  abnormal  action  of  the  vol- 
untary muscles  in  epilepsy,  chorea,  and  hysteria  is  known 
to  be  influenced  by  the  expectation  of  an  attack,  and  by 
the  sight  of  other  patients  similarly  affected.^^  So  it  is 
with  the  involuntary  acts  of  yawning  and  laughing. 

Certain  glands  are  much  influenced  by  thinking  of 
them,  or  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  have  been 
habitually  excited.  This  is  familiar  to  every  one  in 
the  increased  flow  of  saliva,  when  the  thought,  for  in- 
stance, of  intensely  acid  fruit  is  kept  before  the  mind.^^ 
It  was  shown  in  our  sixth  chapter,  that  an  earnest  and 
long-continued  desire  either  to  repress,  or  to  increase, 
the  action  of  the  lacrymal  glands  is  effectual.  Some 
curious  cases  have  been  recorded  in  the  case  of  women, 
of  the  power  of  the  mind  on  the  mammary  glands;  and 
still  more  remarkable  ones  in  relation  to  the  uterine 
functions.^^ 


"  *  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiolo^,'  1858,  p.  111. 
"  *  Mind  and  Brain,'  vol.  ii.  1860,  p.  327. 
"^  '  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology,'  pp.  104-106. 
^  See  Gratiolet  on  this  subject,  De  la  Phys.  p.  287, 
**  Dr.  J.  Crichton  Browne,  from  his  observations  on  the 
insane,  is  convinced  that  attention  directed  for  a  prolonged 


340  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIII. 

When  we  direct  our  whole  attention  to  any  one 
sense,  its  acuteness  is  increased;  ^^  and  the  continued 
habit  of  close  attention,  as  with  blind  people  to  that 
of  hearing,  and  with  the  blind  and  deaf  to  that  of  touch, 
appears  to  improve  the  sense  in  question  permanently. 
There  is,  also,  some  reason  to  believe,  judging  from  the 
capacities  of  different  races  of  man,  that  the  effects  are 
inherited.  Turning  to  ordinary  sensations,  it  is  well 
known  that  pain  is  increased  by  attending  to  it;  and  Sir 
B.  Brodie  goes  so  far  as  to  believe  that  pain  may  be  felt 
in  any  part  of  the  body  to  which  attention  is  closely 
drawn."*^  Sir  H.  Holland  also  remarks  that  we  become 
not  only  conscious  of  the  existence  of  a  part  subjected 
to  concentrated  attention,  but  we  experience  in  it  various 
odd  sensations,  as  of  weight,  heat,  cold,  tingling,  or  itch- 
ing.*2 

Lastly,  some  physiologists  maintain  that  the  mind 

period  on  any  part  or  org-an  may  ultimately  influence  its 
capillary  circulation  and  nutrition.  He  has  given  me  some 
extraordinary  cases;  one  of  these,  which  cannot  here  be 
related  in  full,  refers  to  a  married  woman  fifty  years  of 
age,  who  laboured  under  the  firm  and  long-continued  de- 
lusion that  she  was  pregnant.  When  the  expected  period 
arrived,  she  acted  precisely  as  if  she  had  been  really  deliv- 
ered of  a  child,  and  seemed  to  suffer  extreme  pain,  so  that 
the  perspiration  broke  out  on  her  forehead.  The  result 
was  that  a  state  of  things  returned,  continuing  for  three 
days,  w^hich  had  ceased  during  the  six  previous  years.  Mr. 
Braid  gives,  in  his  '  Magic,  Hypnotism,'  &c.,  1852,  p.  95,  and 
in  his  other  works  analogous  cases,  as  well  as  other  facts 
showing  the  great  influence  of  the  will  on  the  mammary 
glands,  even  on  one  breast  alone. 

*°  Dr.  Maudsley  has  given  ('  The  Physiology  and  Pa- 
thology of  Mind,'  2nd  edit.  1868,  p.  105),  on  good  authority, 
some  curious  statements  with  respect  to  the  improvement 
of  the  sense  of  touch  by  practice  and  attention.  It  is  re- 
markable that  when  this  sense  has  thus  been  rendered 
more  acute  at  any  point  of  the  body,  for  instance,  in  a 
finger,  it  is  likewise  improved  at  the  corresponding  point 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body. 

*^  *  The  Lancet,'  1838,  pp.  39-40,  as  quoted  by  Prof.  Lay- 
cock,  '  Nervous  Diseases  of  Women,'  1840,  p.  110. 

*•  *  Chapters  on  Mental  Physiology,'  1858,  pp.  91-93. 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHINa.  341 

can  influence  the  nutrition  of  parts.  Sir  J.  Paget  has 
given  a  curious  instance  of  the  power,  not  indeed  of  the 
mind,  but  of  the  nervous  system,  on  the  hair.  A  lady 
"  who  is  subject  to  attacks  of  what  is  called  nervous  head- 
ache, always  finds  in  the  morning  after  such  an  one,  that 
some  patches  of  her  hair  are  white,  as  if  powdered  with 
starch.  The  change  is  effected  in  a  night,  and  in  a  few 
days  after,  the  hairs  gradually  regain  their  dark  brownish 
colour."  ^^ 

We  thus  see  that  close  attention  certainly  affects 
various  parts  and  organs,  which  are  not  properly  under 
the  control  of  the  will.  By  what  means  attention — per- 
haps the  most  wonderful  of  all  the  wondrous  powers  of 
the  mind — is  effected,  is  an  extremely  obscure  subject. 
According  to  Miiller,**  the  process  by  which  the  sensory 
cells  of  the  brain  are  rendered,  through  the  will,  sus- 
ceptible of  receiving  more  intense  and  distinct  impres- 
sions, is  closely  analogous  to  that  by  which  the  motor 
cells  are  excited  to  send  nerve-force  to  the  voluntary 
muscles.  There  are  many  points  of  analogy  in  the  action 
of  the  sensor}^  and  motor  nerve-cells;  for  instance,  the 
familiar  fact  that  close  attention  to  any  one  sense  causes 
fatigue,  like  the  prolonged  exertion  of  any  one  muscle.*^ 
When  therefore  we  voluntarily  concentrate  our  attention 
on  any  part  of  the  body,  the  cells  of  the  brain  which  re- 
ceive impressions  or  sensations  from  that  part  are,  it  is 
probable,  in  some  unknown  manner  stimulated  into 
acti\4ty.  This  may  account,  without  any  local  change 
in  the  part  to  which  our  attention  is  earnestly  directed, 
for  pain  or  odd  sensations  being  there  felt  or  increased. 

"  *  Lectures  on  Surg-ical  Pathology,'  3rd  edit,  revised  by 
Prof.  Turner,  1870,  pp.  28,  31. 

**  '  Elements  of  Physiolog-y,'  Eng-.  translat.  vol.  ii.  p.  938. 

*°  Prof.  Laycock  has  discussed  this  point  in  a  very  in- 
teresting' manner.  See  his  '  Nervous  Diseases  of  Women,' 
1840,  p.  110. 


342  BLUSHING.  Chap.  XUL 

If,  however,  the  part  is  furnished  with  muscles,  we 
cannot  feel  sure,  as  Mr.  Michael  Foster  has  remarked 
to  me,  that  some  slight  impulse  may  not  be  unconsciously 
sent  to  such  muscles;  and  this  would  probably  cause  an 
obscure  sensation  in  the  part. 

In  a  large  number  of  cases,  as  with  the  salivary  and 
lacrymal  glands,  intestinal  canal,  &c.,  the  power  of  atten- 
tion seems  to  rest,  either  chiefly,  or  as  some  physiologists 
think,  exclusively,  on  the  vaso-motor  system  being  af- 
fected in  such  a  manner  that  more  blood  is  allowed  to 
flow  into  the  capillaries  of  the  part  in  question.  This 
increased  action  of  the  capillaries  may  in  some  cases  be 
combined  with  the  simultaneously  increased  activity  of 
the  sensorium. 

The  manner  in  which  the  mind  affects  the  vaso- 
motor system  may  be  conceived  in  the  following  man- 
ner. When  we  actually  taste  sour  fruit,  an  impression 
is  sent  through  the  gustatory  nerves  to  a  certain  part  of 
the  sensorium;  this  transmits  nerve-force  to  the  vaso- 
motor centre,  which  consequently  allows  the  muscular 
coats  of  the  small  arteries  that  permeate  the  salivary 
glands  to  relax.  Hence  more  blood  flows  into  these 
glands,  and  they  secrete  a  copious  supply  of  saliva.  ISTow 
it  does  not  seem  an  improbable  assumption,  that,  when 
we  reflect  intently  on  a  sensation,  the  same  part  of  the 
sensorium,  or  a  closely  connected  part  of  it,  is  brought 
into  a  state  of  activity,  in  the  same  manner  as  when  we 
actually  perceive  the  sensation.  If  so,  the  same  cells 
in  the  brain  will  be  excited,  though,  perhaps,  in  a  less 
degree,  by  vividly  thinking  about  a  sour  taste,  as  by 
perceiving  it;  and  they  will  transmit  in  the  one  case,  as 
in  the  other,  nerve-force  to  the  vaso-motor  centre  with 
the  same  results. 

To  give  another,  and,  in  some  respects,  more  appro- 
priate illustration.    If  a  man  stands  before  a  hot  fire, 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  343 

his  face  reddens.  This  appears  to  be  due,  as  Mr.  Michael 
Foster  informs  me,  in  part  to  the  local  action  of  the 
heat,  and  in  part  to  a  reflex  action  from  the  vaso-motor 
centres.*®  In  this  latter  case,  the  heat  affects  the  nerves 
of  the  face;  these  transmit  an  impression  to  the  sensory 
cells  of  the  brain,  which  act  on  the  vaso-motor  centre, 
and  this  reacts  on  the  small  arteries  of  the  face,  relax- 
ing them  and  allowing  them  to  become  filled  with  blood. 
Here,  again,  it  seems  not  improbable  that  if  we  were  re- 
peatedly to  concentrate  with  great  earnestness  our  atten- 
tion on  the  recollection  of  our  heated  faces,  the  same 
part  of  the  sensorium  which  gives  us  the  consciousness 
of  actual  heat  would  be  in  some  slight  degree  stimulated, 
and  would  in  consequence  tend  to  transmit  some  nerve- 
force  to  the  vaso-motor  centres,  so  as  to  relax  the  capil- 
laries of  the  face.  Now  as  men  during  endless  genera- 
tions have  had  their  attention  often  and  earnestly  di- 
rected to  their  personal  appearance,  and  especially  to 
their  faces,  any  incipient  tendency  in  the  facial  capil- 
laries to  be  thus  affected  will  have  become  in  the  course 
of  time  greatly  strengthened  through  the  principles  just 
referred  to,  namely,  nerve-force  passing  readily  along 
accustomed  channels,  and  inherited  habit.  Thus,  as  it 
appears  to  me,  a  plausible  explanation  is  afforded  of  the 
leading  phenomena  connected  with  the  act  of  blushing. 

Recapitulation. — Men  and  women,  and  especially  the 
young,  have  always  valued,  in  a  high  degree,  their  per- 
sonal appearance;  and  have  likewise  regarded  the  appear- 
ance of  others.  The  face  has  been  the  chief  object  of 
attention,  though,  when  man  aboriginally  went  naked. 


**  See,  also,  Mr.  Michael  Foster,  on  the  action  of  the 
vaso-motor  system,  in  his  interesting  Lecture  before  the 
Hoyal  Institution,  as  translated  in  the  '  Revue  dee  Cours 
Scientifiques,'  Sept.  25,  1869,  p.  683. 


du 


BLUSHING.  Chap.  XIIL 


the  whole  surface  of  his  body  would  have  been  attended 
to.  Our  self-attention  is  excited  almost  exclusively  by 
the  opinion  of  others,  for  no  person  living  in  absolute 
solitude  would  care  about  his  appearance.  Every  one 
feels  blame  more  acutely  than  praise.  Now,  whenever 
we  know,  or  suppose,  that  others  are  depreciating  our 
personal  appearance,  our  attention  is  strongly  drawn 
towards  ourselves,  more  especially  to  our  faces.  The 
probable  effect  of  this  will  be,  as  has  just  been  explained, 
to  excite  into  activity  that  part  of  the  sensorium  which 
receives  the  sensory  nerves  of  the  face;  and  this  will 
react  through  the  vaso-motor  system  on  the  facial  capil- 
laries. By  frequent  reiteration  during  numberless  gen- 
erations, the  process  will  have  become  so  habitual,  in 
association  with  the  belief  that  others  are  thinking  of 
us,  that  even  a  suspicion  of  their  depreciation  suffices 
to  relax  the  capillaries,  without  any  conscious  thought 
about  our  faces.  With  some  sensitive  persons  it  is  enough 
even  to  notice  their  dress  to  produce  the  same  effect. 
Through  the  force,  also,  of  association  and  inheritance 
our  capillaries  are  relaxed,  whenever  we  know,  or  imag- 
ine, that  any  one  is  blaming,  though  in  silence,  our 
actions,  thoughts,  or  character;  and,  again,  when  w^e 
are  highly  praised. 

On  this  hypothesis  we  can  understand  how  it  is  that 
the  face  blushes  much  more  than  any  other  part  of  the 
body,  though  the  whole  surface  is  somewhat  affected, 
more  especially  with  the  races  which  still  go  nearly 
naked.  It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the  dark-coloured 
races  should  blush,  though  no  change  of  colour  is  visible 
in  their  skins.  From  the  principle  of  inheritance  it  is 
not  surprising  that  persons  born  blind  should  blush. 
We  can  understand  why  the  young  are  much  more  af- 
fected than  the  old,  and  women  more  than  men:  and 
why  the  opposite  sexes  especially  excite  each  other's 


Chap.  XIII.  BLUSHING.  345 

blushes.  It  becomes  obvious  why  personal  remarks 
should  be  particularly  liable  to  cause  blushing,  and  why 
the  most  powerful  of  all  the  causes  is  shyness;  for  shy- 
ness relates  to  the  presence  and  opinion  of  others,  and 
the  shy  are  always  more  or  less  self-conscious.  With 
respect  to  real  shame  from  moral  delinquencies,  we  can 
perceive  why  it  is  not  guilt,  but  the  thought  that  others 
think  us  guilty,  which  raises  a  blush.  A  man  reflecting 
on  a  crime  committed  in  solitude,  and  stung  by  his  con- 
science, does  not  blush;  yet  he  will  blush  under  the 
vivid  recollection  of  a  detected  fault,  or  of  one  com- 
mitted in  the  presence  of  others,  the  degree  of  blush- 
ing being  closely  related  to  the  feeling  of  regard  for  those 
who  have  detected,  witnessed,  or  suspected  his  fault. 
Breaches  of  conventional  rules  of  conduct,  if  they  are 
rigidly  insisted  on  by  our  equals  or  superiors,  often  cause 
more  intense  blushes  even  than  a  detected  crime;  and 
an  act  which  is  really  criminal,  if  not  blamed  by  our 
equals,  hardly  raises  a  tinge  of  colour  on  our  cheeks. 
Modesty  from  humility,  or  from  an  indelicacy,  excites  a 
vivid  blush,  as  both  relate  to  the  judgment  or  fixed  cus- 
toms of  others. 

From  the  intimate  sympathy  which  exists  between 
the  capillary  circulation  of  the  surface  of  the  head  and 
of  the  brain,  whenever  there  is  intense  blushing,  there 
will  be  some,  and  often  great,  confusion  of  mind.  This 
is  frequently  accompanied  by  awkward  movements,  and 
sometimes  by  the  involuntary  twitching  of  certain 
muscles. 

As  blushing,  according  to  this  hypothesis,  is  an  in- 
direct result  of  attention,  originally  directed  to  our  per- 
sonal appearance,  that  is  to  the  surface  of  the  body,  and 
more  especially  to  the  face,  we  can  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  the  gestures  which  accompany  blushing  through- 
out the  world.    These  consist  in  hiding  the  face,  or  turn- 


346  BLUSHING  Chap.  XIIL 

ing  it  towards  the  ground,  or  to  one  side.  The  eyes  are 
generally  averted  or  are  restless,  for  to  look  at  the  man 
who  causes  us  to  feel  shame  or  shyness,  immediately 
brings  home  in  an  intolerable  manner  the  consciousness 
that  his  gaze  is  directed  on  us.  Through  the  principle 
of  associated  habit,  the  same  movements  of  the  face  and 
eyes  are  practised,  and  can,  indeed,  hardly  be  avoided, 
whenever  we  know  or  believe  that  others  are  blaming, 
or  too  strongly  praising,  our  moral  conduct. 


Chap.  XIV.  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  AND  SUMMARY.  347 


CHAPTER  XIY. 
Concluding  Eemarks  and  Summary. 

The  three  leading-  principles  which  have  determined  the 
chief  movements  of  expression — Their  inheritance — On 
the  part  v^hich  the  will  and  intention  have  played  in 
the  acquirement  of  various  expressions — The  instinctive 
recognition  of  expression — The  bearing  of  our  subject 
on  the  specific  unity  of  the  races  of  man — On  the  suc- 
cessive acquirement  of  various  expressions  by  the  pro- 
genitors of  man — The  importance  of  expression — Con- 
clusion. 

I  HAVE  now  described,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  the 
chief  expressive  actions  in  man,  and  in  some  few  of 
the  lower  animals.  I  have  also  attempted  to  explain 
the  origin  or  development  of  these  actions  through  tl"* 
three  principles  given  in  the  first  chapter.  The  firsr 
of  these  principles  is,  that  movements  which  are  service- 
able in  gratifjdng  some  desire,  or  in  relieving  some  sensa- 
tion, if  often  repeated,  become  so  habitual  that  they  are 
performed,  whether  or  not  of  any  service,  whenever  the 
same  desire  or  sensation  is  felt,  even  in  a  very  weak  de- 
gree. 

Our  second  principle  is  that  of  antithesis.  The  habit 
of  voluntarily  performing  opposite  movements  under 
opposite  impulses  has  become  firmly  established  in  us 
by  the  practice  of  our  whole  lives.  Hence,  if  certain 
actions  have  been  regularly  performed,  in  accordance 
with  our  first  principle,  under  a  certain  frame  of  mind, 


348  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

there  will  be  a  strong  and  involuntary  tendency  to  the 
performance  of  directly  opposite  actions,  whether  or  not 
these  are  of  any  use,  under  the  excitement  of  an  opposite 
frame  of  mind. 

Our  third  principle  is  the  direct  action  of  the  excited 
nervous  system  on  the  body,  independently  of  the  will, 
and  independently,  in  large  part,  of  habit.  Experience 
shows  that  nerve-force  is  generated  and  set  free  when- 
ever the  cerebro-spinal  system  is  excited.  The  direction 
which  this  nerve-force  follows  is  necessarily  determined 
by  the  lines  of  connection  between  the  nerve-cells,  with 
each  other  and  with  various  parts  of  the  body.  But  the 
direction  is  likewise  much  influenced  by  habit;  inas- 
much as  nerve-force  passes  readily  along  accustomed 
channels. 

The  frantic  and  senseless  actions  of  an  enraged  man 
may  be  attributed  in  part  to  the  undirected  flow  of 
nerve-force,  and  in  part  to  the  effects  of  habit,  for  these 
actions  often  vaguely  represent  the  act  of  striking. 
They  thus  pass  into  gestures  included  under  our  first 
principle;  as  when  an  indignant  man  unconsciously 
throws  himself  into  a  fitting  attitude  for  attacking  his 
opponent,  though  without  any  intention  of  making  an 
actual  attack.  We  see  also  the  influence  of  habit  in  all 
the  emotions  and  sensations  which  are  called  exciting; 
for  they  have  assumed  this  character  from  having  ha- 
bitually led  to  energetic  action;  and  action  affects,  in  an 
indirect  manner,  the  respiratory  and  circulatory  system; 
and  the  latter  reacts  on  the  brain.  Whenever  these  emo- 
tions or  sensations  are  even  slightly  felt  by  us,  though 
they  may  not  at  the  time  lead  to  any  exertion,  our  whole 
system  is  nevertheless  disturbed  through  the  force  of 
habit  and  association.  Other  emotions  and  sensations 
are  called  depressing,  because  they  have  not  habitually 
led  to  energetic  action,  excepting  just  at  first,  as  in  the 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  349 

case  of  extreme  pain,  fear,  and  grief,  and  they  have  ulti- 
mately caused  complete  exhaustion;  they  are  conse- 
quently expressed  chiefly  by  negative  signs  and  by  pros- 
tration. Again,  there  are  other  emotions,  such  as  that 
of  affection,  which  do  not  commonly  lead  to  action  of  any 
kind,  and  consequently  are  not  exhibited  by  any  strongly 
marked  outward  signs.  Affection  indeed,  in  as  far  as  it 
is  a  pleasurable  sensation,  excites  the  ordinary  signs  of 
pleasure. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  effects  due  to  the 
excitement  of  the  nervous  system  seem  to  be  quite  in- 
dependent of  the  flow  of  nerve-force  along  the  channels 
which  have  been  rendered  habitual  by  former  exertions 
of  the  will.  Such  effects,  which  often  reveal  the  state 
of  mind  of  the  person  thus  affected,  cannot  at  present 
be  explained;  for  instance,  the  change  of  colour  in  the 
hair  from  extreme  terror  or  grief, — the  cold  sweat  and 
the  trembling  of  the  muscles  from  fear, — the  modified 
secretions  of  the  intestinal  canal, — and  the  failure  of 
certain  glands  to  act. 

Notwithstanding  that  much  remains  unintelligible 
in  our  present  subject,  so  many  expressive  movements 
and  actions  can  be  explained  to  a  certain  extent  through 
the  above  three  principles,  that  we  may  hope  hereafter 
to  see  all  explained  by  these  or  by  closely  analogous 
principles. 

Actions  of  all  kinds,  if  regularly  accompanying  any 
state  of  the  mind,  are  at  once  recognized  as  expressive. 
These  may  consist  of  movements  of  any  part  of  the  body, 
as  the  wagging  of  a  dog's  tail,  the  shrugging  of  a  man's 
shoulders,  the  erection  of  the  hair,  the  exudation  of 
perspiration,  the  state  of  the  capillary  circulation,  la- 
boured breathing,  and  the  use  of  the  vocal  or  other  sound- 
producing  instruments.  Even  insects  express  anger, 
terror,  jealousy,  and  love  by  their  stridulation.     With 


350  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

man  the  respiratory  organs  are  of  especial  importance 
in  expression,  not  only  in  a  direct,  but  in  a  still  higher 
degree  in  an  indirect  manner. 

Few  points  are  more  interesting  in  our  present  sub- 
ject than  the  extraordinarily  complex  chain  of  events 
which  lead  to  certain  expressive  movements.  Take,  for 
instance,  the  oblique  eyebrows  of  a  man  suffering  from 
grief  or  anxiety.  When  infants  scream  loudly  from 
hunger  or  pain,  the  circulation  is  affected,  and  the  eyes 
tend  to  become  gorged  with  blood:  consequently  the 
muscles  surrounding  the  eyes  are  strongly  contracted 
as  a  protection:  this  action,  in  the  course  of  many  gen- 
erations, has  become  firmly  fixed  and  inherited:  but 
when,  with  advancing  years  and  culture,  the  habit  of 
screaming  is  partially  repressed,  the  muscles  round  the 
eyes  still  tend  to  contract,  whenever  even  slight  distress 
is  felt:  of  these  muscles,  the  pyramidals  of  the  nose  are 
less  under  the  control  of  the  will  than  are  the  others, 
and  their  contraction  can  be  checked  only  by  that  of  the 
central  fasciae  of  the  frontal  muscle:  these  latter  fasciae 
draw  up  the  inner  ends  of  the  eyebrows,  and  wrinkle  the 
forehead  in  a  peculiar  manner,  which  we  instantly  recog- 
nize as  the  expression  of  grief  or  anxiety.  Slight  move- 
ments, such  as  these  just  described,  or  the  scarcely  per- 
ceptible drawing  down  of  the  corners  of  the  mouth,  are 
the  last  remnants  or  rudiments  of  strongly  marked  and 
intelligible  movements.  They  are  as  full  of  significance 
to  us  in  regard  to  expression,  as  are  ordinary  rudiments 
to  the  naturalist  in  the  classification  and  genealogy  of 
organic  beings. 

That  the  chief  expressive  actions,  exhibited  by  man 
and  by  the  lower  animals,  are  now  innate  or  inherited, 
— that  is,  have  not  been  learnt  by  the  individual, — is 
admitted  by  every  one.  So  little  has  learning  or  imita- 
tion to  do  with  several  of  them  that  they  are  from  the 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  351 

earliest  days  and  throughout  life  quite  beyond  our  con- 
trol; for  instance,  the  relaxation  of  the  arteries  of  the 
skin  in  blushing,  and  the  increased  action  of  the  heart 
in  anger.  We  may  see  children,  only  two  or  three  years 
old,  and  even  those  bom  blind,  blushing  from  shame; 
and  the  naked  scalp  of  a  very  young  infant  reddens  from 
passion.  Infants  scream  from  pain  directly  after  birth, 
and  all  their  features  then  assume  the  same  form  as 
during  subsequent  years.  These  facts  alone  suffice  to 
show  that  many  of  our  most  important  expressions  have 
not  been  learnt;  but  it  is  remarkable  that  some,  which 
are  certainly  innate,  require  practice  in  the  individual, 
before  they  are  performed  in  a  full  and  perfect  manner; 
for  instance,  weeping  and  laughing.  The  inheritance 
of  most  of  our  expressive  actions  explains  the  fact  that 
those  born  blind  display  them,  as  I  hear  from  the  Rev. 
R.  H.  Blair,  equally  well  with  those  gifted  with  eyesight. 
We  can  thus  also  understand  the  fact  that  the  young  and 
the  old  of  widely  different  races,  both  with  man  and 
animals,  express  the  same  state  of  mind  by  the  same 
movements. 

We  are  so  familiar  with  the  fact  of  young  and  old 
animals  displaying  their  feelings  in  the  same  manner, 
that  we  hardly  perceive  how  remarkable  it  is  that  a 
young  puppy  should  wag  its  tail  when  pleased,  depress 
its  ears  and  uncover  its  canine  teeth  when  pretending 
to  be  savage,  just  like  an  old  dog;  or  that  a  kitten  should 
arch  its  little  back  and  erect  its  hair  when  frightened 
and  angry,  like  an  old  cat.  When,  however,  we  turn  to 
less  common  gestures  in  ourselves,  which  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  look  at  as  artificial  or  conventional, — such  as 
shrugging  the  shoulders,  as  a  sign  of  impotence,  or  the 
raising  the  arms  with  open  hands  and  extended  fingers, 
as  a  sign  of  wonder, — we  feel  perhaps  too  much  surprise 
at  finding  that  they  are  innate.     That  these  and  some 


352  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

other  gestures  are  inherited,  we  may  infer  from  their 
being  performed  by  very  young  children,  by  those  born 
blind,  and  by  the  most  widely  distinct  races  of  man. 
We  should  also  bear  in  mind  that  new  and  highly  pecul- 
iar tricks,  in  association  with  certain  states  of  the  mind, 
are  known  to  have  arisen  in  certain  individuals,  and  to 
have  been  afterwards  transmitted  to  their  offspring,  in 
some  cases,  for  more  than  one  generation. 

Certain  other  gestures,  which  seem  to  us  so  natural 
that  we  might  easily  imagine  that  they  were  innate,  ap- 
parently have  been  learnt  like  the  words  of  a  language. 
This  seems  to  be  the  case  with  the  joining  of  the  uplifted 
hands,  and  the  turning  up  of  the  eyes,  in  prayer.  So 
it  is  with  kissing  as  a  mark  of  affection;  but  this  is  in- 
nate, in  so  far  as  it  depends  on  the  pleasure  derived  from 
contact  with  a  beloved  person.  The  evidence  with  re- 
spect to  the  inheritance  of  nodding  and  shaking  the 
head,  as  signs  of  affirmation  and  negation,  is  doubtful; 
for  they  are  not  universal,  yet  seem  too  general  to  have 
been  independently  acquired  by  all  the  individuals  of 
so  many  races. 

We  will  now  consider  how  far  the  will  and  conscious- 
ness have  come  into  play  in  the  development  of  the 
various  movements  of  expression.  As  far  as  we  can 
judge,  only  a  few  expressive  movements,  such  as  those 
just  referred  to,  are  learnt  by  each  individual;  that  is, 
were  consciously  and  voluntarily  performed  during  the 
early  years  of  life  for  some  definite  object,  or  in  imita- 
tion of  others,  and  then  became  habitual.  The  far  greater 
number  of  the  movements  of  expression,  and  all  the  more 
important  ones,  are,  as  we  have  seen,  innate  or  inherited; 
and  such  cannot  be  said  to  depend  on  the  will  of  the 
individual.  Nevertheless,  all  those  included  under  our 
first  principle  were  at  first  voluntarily  performed  for  a 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  353 

definite  object, — namely,  to  escape  some  danger,  to  re- 
lieve some  distress,  or  to  gratify  some  desire.  For  in- 
stance, there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that  the  animals 
which  fight  with  their  teeth,  have  acquired  the  habit 
of  drawing  back  their  ears  closely  to  their  heads,  when 
feeling  savage,  from  their  progenitors  having  voluntarily 
acted  in  this  manner  in  order  to  protect  their  ears  from 
being  torn  by  their  antagonists;  for  those  animals  which 
do  not  fight  with  their  teeth  do  not  thus  express  a  savage 
state  of  mind.  We  may  infer  as  highly  probable  that 
we  ourselves  have  acquired  the  habit  of  contracting  the 
muscles  round  the  eyes,  whilst  crying  gently,  that  is, 
without  the  utterance  of  any  loud  sound,  from  our  pro- 
genitors, especially  during  infancy,  having  experienced, 
during  the  act  of  screaming,  an  uncomfortable  sensation 
in  their  eyeballs.  Again,  some  highly  expressive  move- 
ments result  from  the  endeavour  to  check  or  prevent 
other  expressive  movements;  thus  the  obliquity  of  the 
eyebrows  and  the  drawing  down  of  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  follow  from  the  endeavour  to  prevent  a  screaming- 
fit  from  coming  on,  or  to  check  it  after  it  has  come  on. 
Here  it  is  obvious  that  the  consciousness  and  will  must 
at  first  have  come  into  play;  not  that  we  are  conscious 
in  these  or  in  other  such  cases  what  muscles  are  brought 
into  action,  any  more  than  when  we  perform  the  most 
ordinary  voluntary  movements. 

With  respect  to  the  expressive  movements  due  to 
the  principle  of  antithesis,  it  is  clear  that  the  will  has 
intervened,  though  in  a  remote  and  indirect  manner. 
So  again  with  the  movements  coming  under  our  third 
principle;  these,  in  as  far  as  they  are  influenced  by 
nerve-force  readily  passing  along  habitual  channels,  have 
been  determined  by  former  and  repeated  exertions  of  the 
will.  The  effects  indirectly  due  to  this  latter  agency 
are  often  combined  in  a  complex  manner,  through  the 


354:  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

force  of  habit  and  association,  with  those  directly  re- 
sulting from  the  excitement  of  the  cerebro-spinal  sys- 
tem. This  seems  to  be  the  case  with  the  increased  action 
of  the  heart  under  the  influence  of  any  strong  emotion. 
When  an  animal  erects  its  hair,  assumes  a  threatening 
attitude,  and  utters  fierce  sounds,  in  order  to  terrify  an 
enemy,  we  see  a  curious  combination  of  movements 
which  were  originally  voluntary  with  those  that  are  invol- 
untary. It  is,  however,  possible  that  even  strictly  in- 
voluntary actions,  such  as  the  erection  of  the  hair,  may 
have  been  affected  by  the  mysterious  power  of  the  will. 

Some  expressive  movements  may  have  arisen  spon- 
taneously, in  association  with  certain  states  of  the  mind, 
like  the  tricks  lately  referred  to,  and  afterwards  been 
inherited.  But  I  know  of  no  evidence  rendering  this 
view  probable. 

The  power  of  communication  between  the  members 
of  the  same  tribe  by  means  of  language  has  been  of  para- 
mount importance  in  the  development  of  man;  and  the 
force  of  language  is  much  aided  by  the  expressive  move- 
ments of  the  face  and  body.  We  perceive  this  at  once 
when  we  converse  on  an  important  subject  with  any  per- 
son whose  face  is  concealed.  Nevertheless  there  are  no 
grounds,  as  far  as  I  can  discover,  for  believing  that  any 
muscle  has  been  developed  or  even  modified  exclusively 
for  the  sake  of  expression.  The  vocal  and  other  sound- 
producing  organs,  by  which  various  expressive  noises 
are  produced,  seem  to  form  a  partial  exception;  but  I 
have  elsewhere  attempted  to  show  that  these  organs  were 
first  developed  for  sexual  purposes,  in  order  that  one  sex 
might  call  or  charm  the  other.  Nor  can  I  discover 
grounds  for  believing  that  any  inherited  movement, 
which  now  serves  as  a  means  of  expression,  was  at  first 
voluntarily  and  consciously  performed  for  this  special 
purpose, — like  some  of  the  gestures  and  the  finger-Ian- 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  355 

guage  used  by  the  deaf  and  dumb.  On  the  contrary, 
every  true  or  inherited  movement  of  expression  seems 
to  have  had  some  natural  and  independent  origin.  But 
when  once  acquired,  such  movements  may  be  voluntarily 
and  consciously  employed  as  a  means  of  communication. 
Even  infants,  if  carefully  attended  to,  find  out  at  a  very 
early  age  that  their  screaming  brings  relief,  and  they 
soon  voluntarily  practise  it.  We  may  frequently  see  a 
person  voluntarily  raising  his  eyebrows  to  express  sur- 
prise, or  smiHng  to  express  pretended  satisfaction  and 
acquiescence.  A  man  often  wishes  to  make  certain  ges- 
tures conspicuous  or  demonstrative,  and  will  raise  his 
extended  arms  with  widely  opened  fingers  above  his 
head,  to  show  astonishment,  or  lift  his  shoulders  to  his 
ears,  to  show  that  he  cannot  or  will  not  do  something. 
The  tendency  to  such  movements  will  be  strengthened 
or  increased  by  their  being  thus  voluntarily  and  repeat- 
edly performed;  and  the  effects  may  be  inherited. 

It  is  perhaps  worth  consideration  whether  move- 
ments at  first  used  only  by  one  or  a  few  individuals  to 
express  a  certain  state  of  mind  may  not  sometimes  have 
spread  to  others,  and  ultimately  have  become  universal, 
through  the  power  of  conscious  and  unconscious  imita- 
tion. That  there  exists  in  man  a  strong  tendency  to 
imitation,  independently  of  the  conscious  will,  is  certain. 
This  is  exhibited  in  the  most  extraordinary  manner  in 
certain  brain  diseases,  especially  at  the  commencement 
of  inflammatory  softening  of  the  brain,  and  has  been 
called  the  "  echo  sign.''  Patients  thus  affected  imitate, 
without  understanding,  every  absurd  gesture  which  is 
made,  and  every  word  which  is  uttered  near  them,  even 
in  a  foreign  language.^    In  the  case  of  animals,  the  jackal 


^  See  the  interesting  facts  given  by  Dr.  Bateman  on 
*  Aphasia,'  1870,  p.  110. 


356  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

and  wolf  have  learnt  under  confinement  to  imitate  the 
barking  of  the  dog.  How  the  barking  of  the  dog,  which 
serves  to  express  various  emotions  and  desires,  and  whicH 
is  so  remarkable  from  having  been  acquired  since  the 
animal  was  domesticated,  and  from  being  inherited  in 
different  degrees  by  different  breeds,  was  first  learnt, 
we  do  not  know;  but  may  we  not  suspect  that  imitation 
has  had  something  to  do  with  its  acquisition,  owing  to 
dogs  having  long  lived  in  strict  association  with  so 
loquacious  an  animal  as  man? 

In  the  course  of  the  foregoing  remarks  and  through- 
out this  volume,  I  have  often  felt  much  difficulty  about 
the  proper  application  of  the  terms,  will,  consciousness, 
and  intention.  Actions,  which  were  at  first  voluntary, 
soon  became  habitual,  and  at  last  hereditary,  and  may 
then  be  performed  even  in  opposition  to  the  will.  x\l- 
though  they  often  reveal  the  state  of  the  mind,  this  re- 
sult was  not  at  first  either  intended  or  expected.  Even 
such  words  as  that  "  certain  movements  serve  as  a  means 
of  expression  "  are  apt  to  mislead,  as  they  imply  that 
this  was  their  primary  purpose  or  object.  This,  however, 
seems  rarely  or  never  to  have  been  the  case;  the  move- 
ments having  been  at  first  either  of  some  direct  use,  or 
the  indirect  effect  of  the  excited  state  of  the  sensorium. 
An  infant  may  scream  either  intentionally  or  instinc- 
tively to  show  that  it  wants  food;  but  it  has  no  wish  or 
intention  to  draw  its  features  into  the  peculiar  form 
which  so  plainly  indicates  misery;  yet  some  of  the  most 
characteristic  expressions  exhibited  by  man  are  derived 
from  the  act  of  screaming,  as  has  been  explained. 

Although  most  of  our  expressive  actions  are  innate 
or  instinctive,  as  is  admitted  by  everyone,  it  is  a  dif- 
ferent question  whether  we  have  any  instinctive  power 
of  recognizing  them.  This  has  generally  been  assumed 
to  be  the  case;  but  the  assumption  has  been  strongly 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  357 

controverted  by  M.  Lemoine.^  Monkeys  soon  leam  to 
distinguish,  not  only  the  tones  of  voice  of  their  masters, 
but  the  expression  of  their  faces,  as  is  asserted  by  a  care- 
ful observer.^  Dogs  well  know  the  difference  between 
caressing  and  threatening  gestures  or  tones;  and  they 
seem  to  recognize  a  compassionate  tone.  But  as  far  as 
I  can  make  out,  after  repeated  trials,  they  do  not  under- 
stand any  movement  confined  to  the  features,  excepting 
a  smile  or  laugh;  and  this  they  appear,  at  least  in  some 
cases,  to  recognize.  This  limited  amount  of  knowledge 
has  probably  been  gained,  both  by  monkeys  and  dogs, 
through  their  associating  harsh  or  kind  treatment  with 
our  actions;  and  the  knowledge  certainly  is  not  in- 
stinctive. Children,  no  doubt,  would  soon  learn  the 
movements  of  expression  in  their  elders  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  animals  learn  those  of  man.  Moreover,  Avhen  a 
child  cries  or  laughs,  he  knows  in  a  general  manner 
what  he  is  doing  and  what  he  feels;  so  that  a  very  small 
exertion  of  reason  would  tell  him  what  crying  or  laugh- 
ing meant  in  others.  But  the  question  is,  do  our  children 
acquire  their  knowledge  of  expression  solely  by  experi- 
ence through  the  power  of  association  and  reason? 

As  most  of  the  movements  of  expression  must  have 
been  gradually  acquired,  afterwards  becoming  instinc- 
tive, there  seems  to  be  some  degree  of  a  priori  probabil- 
ity that  their  recognition  would  likewise  have  become 
instinctive.  There  is,  at  least,  no  greater  difficulty  in 
believing  this  than  in  admitting  that,  when  a  female 
quadruped  first  bears  young,  she  knows  the  cry  of  dis- 
tress of  her  offspring,  or  than  in  admitting  that  many 
animals  instinctively  recognize  and  fear  their  enemies; 
and  of  both  these  statements  there  can  be  no  reason- 

*  '  La  Physionomie  et  la  Parole,'  1865,  pp.  103,  118. 

*  Reng-g-er,  '  Naturgeschichte  der  Saugethiere  von  Para- 
guay,' 1830,  s.  55. 


358  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

able  doubt.  It  is  however  extremely  difficult  to  prove 
that  our  children  instinctively  recognize  any  expression. 
I  attended  to  this  point  in  my  first-born  infant,  who 
could  not  have  learnt  anything  by  associating  with  other 
children,  and  I  was  convinced  that  he  understood  a  smile 
and  received  pleasure  from  seeing  one,  answering  it  by 
another,  at  much  too  early  an  age  to  have  learnt  anything 
by  experience.  When  this  child  was  about  four  months 
old,  I  made  in  his  presence  many  odd  noises  and  strange 
grimaces,  and  tried  to  look  savage;  but  the  noises,  if 
not  too  loud,  as  well  as  the  grimaces,  were  all  taken 
as  good  jokes;  and  I  attributed  this  at  the  time  to  their 
being  preceded  or  accompanied  by  smiles.  When  five 
months  old,  he  seemed  to  understand  a  compassionate 
expression  and  tone  of  voice.  When  a  few  days  over  six 
months  old,  his  nurse  pretended  to  cry,  and  I  saw  that 
his  face  instantly  assumed  a  melancholy  expression,  with 
the  corners  of  the  mouth  strongly  depressed;  now  this 
child  could  rarely  have  seen  any  other  child  crjdng,  and 
never  a  grown-up  person  crying,  and  I  should  doubt 
whether  at  so  early  an  age  he  could  have  reasoned  on 
the  subject.  Therefore  it  seems  to  me  that  an  innate 
feeling  must  have  told  him  that  the  pretended  crying 
of  his  nurse  expressed  grief;  and  this  through  the  in- 
stinct of  sympathy  excited  grief  in  him. 

M.  Lemoine  argues  that,  if  man  possessed  an  innate 
knowledge  of  expression,  authors  and  artists  would  not 
have  found  it  so  difficult,  as  is  notoriously  the  case,  to 
describe  and  depict  the  characteristic  signs  of  each  par- 
ticular state  of  mind.  But  this  does  not  seem  to  me  a 
valid  argument.  We  may  actually  behold  the  expression 
changing  in  an  unmistakable  manner  in  a  man  or  ani- 
mal, and  yet  be  quite  unable,  as  I  know  from  experience, 
to  analyse  the  nature  of  the  change.  In  the  two  photo- 
graphs given  by  Duchenne  of  the  same  old  man  (Plate 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  359 

III.  figs.  5  and  6),  almost  every  one  recognized  that  the 
one  represented  a  true,  and  the  other  a  false  smile;  but  I 
have  found  it  very  difficult  to  decide  in  what  the  whole 
amount  of  difference  consists.  It  has  often  struck  me 
as  a  curious  fact  that  so  many  shades  of  expression  are 
instantly  recognized  without  any  conscious  process  of 
analysis  on  our  part.  Xo  one,  I  believe,  can  clearly  de- 
scribe a  sullen  or  sly  expression;  yet  many  observers  are 
unanimous  that  these  expressions  can  be  recognized  in 
the  various  races  of  man.  Almost  everyone  to  whom 
I  showed  Duchenne's  photograph  of  the  young  man  with 
oblique  eyebrows  (Plate  II.  fig.  2)  at  once  declared  that 
it  expressed  grief  or  some  such  feeling;  yet  probably 
not  one  of  these  persons,  or  one  out  of  a  thousand  per- 
sons, could  beforehand  have  told  anything  precise  about 
the  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows  with  their  inner  ends 
puckered,  or  about  the  rectangular  furrows  on  the  fore- 
head. So  it  is  with  many  other  expressions,  of  which  I 
have  had  practical  experience  in  the  trouble  requisite 
in  instructing  others  what  points  to  observe.  If,  then, 
great  ignorance  of  details  does  not  prevent  our  recog- 
nizing with  certainty  and  promptitude  various  expres- 
sions, I  do  not  see  how  this  ignorance  can  be  advanced 
as  an  argument  that  our  knowledge,  though  vague  and 
general,  is  not  innate. 

I  have  endeavoured  to  show  in  considerable  detail 
that  all  the  chief  expressions  exhibited  by  man  are  the 
same  throughout  the  world.  This  fact  is  interesting, 
as  it  affords  a  new  argument  in  favour  of  the  several 
races  being  descended  from  a  single  parent-stock,  which 
must  have  been  almost  completely  human  in  structure, 
and  to  a  large  extent  in  mind,  before  the  period  at  which 
the  races  diverged  from  each  other.  No  doubt  similar 
structures,  adapted  for  the  same  purpose,  have  often 
been  independently  acquired  through  variation  and  nat- 


360  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

ural  selection  by  distinct  species;  but  this  view  will  not 
explain  close  similarity  between  distinct  species  in  a 
multitude  of  unimportant  details.  Now  if  we  bear  in 
mind  the  numerous  points  of  structure  having  no  rela- 
tion to  expression,  in  which  all  the  races  of  man  closely 
agree,  and  then  add  to  them  the  numerous  points,  some 
of  the  highest  importance  and  many  of  the  most  trifling 
value,  on  which  the  movements  of  expression  directly 
or  indirectly  depend,  it  seems  to  me  improbable  in  the 
highest  degree  that  so  much  similarity,  or  rather  identity 
of  structure,  could  have  been  acquired  by  independent 
means.  Yet  this  must  have  been  the  case  if  the  races 
of  man  are  descended  from  several  aboriginally  distinct 
species.  It  is  far  more  probable  that  the  many  points 
of  close  similarity  in  the  various  races  are  due  to  inheri- 
tance from  a  single  parent-form,  which  had  already  as- 
sumed a  human  character. 

It  is  a  curious,  though  perhaps  an  idle  speculation, 
how  early  in  the  long  line  of  our  progenitors  the  various 
expressive  movements,  now  exhibited  by  man,  were  suc- 
cessively acquired.  The  following  remarks  will  at  least 
serve  to  recall  some  of  the  chief  points  discussed  in  this 
volume.  We  may  confidently  believe  that  laughter,  as 
a  sign  of  pleasure  or  enjoyment,  was  practised  by  our 
progenitors  long  before  they  deserved  to  be  called 
human;  for  very  many  kinds  of  monkeys,  when  pleased, 
utter  a  reiterated  sound,  clearly  analogous  to  our  laugh- 
ter, often  accompanied  by  vibratory  movements  of  their 
jaws  or  lips,  with  the  corners  of  the  mouth  drawn  back- 
wards and  upwards,  by  the  wrinkling  of  the  cheeks,  and 
even  by  the  brightening  of  the  eyes. 

We  may  likewise  infer  that  fear  was  expressed  from 
an  extremely  remote  period,  in  almost  the  same  manner 
as  it  now  is  by  man;  namely,  by  trembling,  the  erec- 
tion of  the  hair,  cold  perspiration,  pallor,  widely  opened 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  361 

eyes,  the  relaxation  of  most  of  the  muscles,  and  by  the 
whole  body  cowering  downwards  or  held  motionless. 

Suffering,  if  great,  will  from  the  first  have  caused 
screams  or  groans  to  be  uttered,  the  body  to  be  con- 
torted, and  the  teeth  to  be  ground  together.  But  our 
progenitors  \\411  not  have  exhibited  those  highly  expres- 
sive movements  of  the  features  which  accompany  scream- 
ing and  crying  until  their  circulatory  and  respiratory 
organs,  and  the  muscles  surrounding  the  eyes,  had  ac- 
quired their  present  structure.  The  shedding  of  tears 
appears  to  have  originated  through  reflex  action  from 
the  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  eyelids,  together  per- 
haps with  the  eyeballs  becoming  gorged  with  blood  dur- 
ing the  act  of  screaming.  Therefore  weeping  probably 
came  on  rather  late  in  the  line  of  our  descent;  and  this 
conclusion  agrees  with  the  fact  that  our  nearest  allies, 
the  anthropomorphous  apes,  do  not  weep.  But  we  must 
here  exercise  some  caution,  for  as  certain  monkeys,  which 
are  not  closely  related  to  man,  weep,  this  habit  might 
have  been  developed  long  ago  in  a  sub-branch  of  the 
group  from  which  man  is  derived.  Our  early  progeni- 
tors, when  suffering  from  grief  or  anxiety,  would  not 
have  made  their  eyebrows  oblique,  or  have  drawn  down 
the  corners  of  their  mouth,  until  they  had  acquired  the 
habit  of  endeavouring  to  restrain  their  screams.  The 
expression,  therefore,  of  grief  and  anxiety  is  eminently 
human. 

Eage  will  have  been  expressed  at  a  very  early  period 
by  threatening  or  frantic  gestures,  by  the  reddening  of 
the  skin,  and  by  glaring  eyes,  but  not  by  frowning. 
For  the  habit  of  frowning  seems  to  have  been  acquired 
chiefly  from  the  corrugators  being  the  first  muscles  to 
contract  round  the  eyes,  whenever  during  infancy  pain, 
anger,  or  distress  is  felt,  and  there  consequently  is  a  near 
approach  to  screaming;  and  partly  from  a  frown  serving 
24 


362  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

as  a  shade  in  difficult  and  intent  vision.  It  seems  prob- 
able that  this  shading  action  would  not  have  become 
habitual  until  man  had  assumed  a  completely  upright 
position,  for  monkeys  do  not  frown  when  exposed  to  a 
glaring  light.  Our  eariy  progenitors,  when  enraged, 
would  probably  have  exposed  their  teeth  more  freely 
than  does  man,  even  when  giving  full  vent  to  his  rage, 
as  with  the  insane.  We  may,  also,  feel  almost  certain 
that  they  would  have  protruded  their  lips,  when  sulky 
or  disappointed,  in  a  greater  degree  than  is  the  case  with 
our  own  children,  or  even  with  the  children  of  existing 
savage  races. 

Our  early  progenitors,  when  indignant  or  moderately 
angry,  would  not  have  held  their  heads  erect,  opened 
their  chests,  squared  their  shoulders,  and  clenched  their 
fists,  until  they  had  acquired  the  ordinary  carriage  and 
upright  attitude  of  man,  and  had  learnt  to  fight  with 
their  fists  or  clubs.  Until  this  period  had  arrived  the 
antithetical  gesture  of  shrugging  the  shoulders,  as  a 
sign  of  impotence  or  of  patience,  would  not  have  been 
developed.  From  the  same  reason  astonishment  would 
not  then  have  been  expressed  by  raising  the  arms  with 
open  hands  and  extended  fingers.  ■N'or,  judging  from 
the  actions  of  monkeys,  would  astonishment  have  been 
exhibited  by  a  widely  opened  mouth;  but  the  eyes  would 
have  been  opened  and  the  eyebrows  arched.  Disgust 
would  have  been  shown  at  a  very  early  period  by  move- 
ments round  the  mouth,  like  those  of  vomiting, — that  is, 
if  the  view  which  I  have  suggested  respecting  the  source 
of  the  expres.sion  is  correct,  namely,  that  our  progenitors 
had  the  power,  and  used  it,  of  voluntarily  and  quickly 
rejecting  any  food  from  their  stomachs  which  they  dis- 
liked. But  the  more  refined  manner  of  showing  con- 
tempt or  disdain,  by  lowering  the  eyelids,  or  turning 
away  the  eyes  and  face,  as  if  the  despised  person  were 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  363 

not  worth  looking  at,  would  not  probably  have  been  ac- 
quired until  a  much  later  period. 

Of  all  expressions,  blushing  seems  to  be  the  most 
strictly  human;  yet  it  is  common  to  all  or  nearly  all  the 
races  of  man,  whether  or  not  any  change  of  colour  is 
visible  in  their  skin.  The  relaxation  of  the  small  arteries 
of  the  surface,  on  which  blushing  depends,  seems  to 
have  primarily  resulted  from  earnest  attention  directed 
to  the  appearance  of  our  own  persons,  especially  of  our 
faces,  aided  by  habit,  inheritance,  and  the  ready  flow 
of  nerve-force  along  accustomed  channels;  and  after- 
wards to  have  been  extended  by  the  power  of  associa- 
tion to  self-attention  directed  to  moral  conduct.  It  can 
hardly  be  doubted  that  many  animals  are  capable  of 
appreciating  beautiful  colours  and  even  forms,  as  is 
shown  by  the  pains  which  the  individuals  of  one  sex  take 
in  displaying  their  beauty  before  those  of  the  opposite 
sex.  But  it  does  not  seem  possible  that  any  animal,  until 
its  mental  powers  had  been  developed  to  an  equal  or 
nearly  equal  degree  with  those  of  man,  would  have 
closely  considered  and  been  sensitive  about  its  own  per- 
sonal appearance.  Therefore  we  may  conclude  that 
blushing  originated  at  a  very  late  period  in  the  long  line 
of  our  descent. 

From  the  various  facts  just  alluded  to,  and  given  in 
the  course  of  this  volume,  it  follows  that,  if  the  structure 
of  our  organs  of  respiration  and  circulation  had  differed 
in  only  a  slight  degree  from  the  state  in  which  they  now 
exist,  most  of  our  expressions  would  have  been  wonder- 
fully different.  A  very  slight  change  in  the  course  of 
the  arteries  and  veins  which  run  to  the  head,  would  prob- 
ably have  prevented  the  blood  from  accumulating  in 
our  eyeballs  during  violent  expiration;  for  this  occurs 
in  extremely  few  quadrupeds.  In  this  case  we  should 
not  have  displayed  some  of  our  most  characteristic  ex- 


364  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  Chap.  XIV. 

pressions.  If  man  had  breathed  water  by  the  aid  of  ex- 
ternal branchiae  (though  the  idea  is  hardly  conceivable), 
instead  of  air  through  his  mouth  and  nostrils,  his  fea- 
tures would  not  have  expressed  his  feelings  much  more 
efficiently  than  now  do  his  hands  or  limbs.  Eage  and 
disgust,  however,  would  still  have  been  shown  by  move- 
ments about  the  lips  and  mouth,  and  the  eyes  would 
have  become  brighter  or  duller  according  to  the  state 
of  the  circulation.  If  our  ears  had  remained  movable, 
their  movements  would  have  been  highly  expressive,  as 
is  the  case  with  all  the  animals  which  fight  with  their 
teeth;  and  we  may  infer  that  our  early  progenitors  thus 
fought,  as  we  still  uncover  the  canine  tooth  on  one  side 
when  we  sneer  at  or  defy  any  one,  and  we  uncover  all 
our  teeth  when  furiously  enraged. 

The  movements  of  expression  in  the  face  and  body, 
whatever  their  origin  may  have  been,  are  in  themselves 
of  much  importance  for  our  welfare.  They  serve  as  the 
first  means  of  communication  between  the  mother  and 
her  infant;  she  smiles  approval,  and  thus  encourages 
her  child  on  the  right  path,  or  frowns  disapproval.  We 
readily  perceive  sympathy  in  others  by  their  expression; 
our  sufferings  are  thus  mitigated  and  our  pleasures  in- 
creased; and  mutual  good  feeling  is  thus  strengthened. 
The  movements  of  expression  give  vividness  and  energy 
to  our  spoken  words.  They  reveal  the  thoughts  and 
intentions  of  others  more  truly  than  do  words,  which 
may  be  falsified.  Whatever  amount  of  truth  the  so-called 
science  of  physiognomy  may  contain,  appears  to  depend, 
as  Haller  long  ago  remarked,*  on  different  persons  bring- 
ing into  frequent  use  different  facial  muscles,  according 


*  Quoted  by  Moreau,  in  his  edition  of  Lavater,  1820,  torn, 
iv.  p.  211. 


Chap.  XIV.  AND  SUMMARY.  365 

to  their  dispositions;  the  development  of  these  muscles 
being  perhaps  thus  increased,  and  the  lines  or  furrows 
on  the  face,  due  to  their  habitual  contraction,  being  thus 
rendered  deeper  and  more  conspicuous.  The  free  expres- 
sion by  outward  signs  of  an  emotion  intensifies  it.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  repression,  as  far  as  this  is  possible, 
of  all  outward  signs  softens  our  emotions.^  He  who 
gives  way  to  violent  gestures  will  increase  his  rage;  he 
who  does  not  control  the  signs  of  fear  will  experience 
fear  in  a  greater  degree;  and  he  who  remains  passive 
when  overwhelmed  with  grief  loses  his  best  chance  of 
recovering  elasticity  of  mind.  These  results  follow 
partly  from  the  intimate  relation  which  exists  between 
almost  all  the  emotions  and  their  outward  manifesta- 
tions; and  partly  from  the  direct  influence  of  exertion 
on  the  heart,  and  consequently  on  the  brain.  Even  the 
simulation  of  an  emotion  tends  to  arouse  it  in  our  minds. 
Shakespeare,  who  from  his  wonderful  knowledge  of  the 
human  mind  ought  to  be  an  excellent  judge,  says: — 

"  Is  it  not  monstrous  that  this  player  here, 
But  in  a  fiction,  in  a  dream  of  passion, 
Could  force  his  soul  so  to  his  own  conceit, 
That,  from  her  working,  all  his  visag-e  wann'd; 
Tears  in  his  eyes,  distraction  in  's  aspect, 
A  broken  voice,  and  his  whole  function  suiting 
With  forms  to  his  conceit?    And  all  for  nothing!  " 

Hamlet,  act  ii.  sc.  2. 

We  have  seen  that  the  study  of  the  theory  of  ex- 
pression confirms  to  a  certain  limited  extent  the  con- 
clusion that  man  is  derived  from  some  lower  animal 
form,  and  supports  the  belief  of  the  specific  or  sub- 
specific  unity  01  tnc  several  races;  but  as  far  as  my 
judgment  serves,  such  confirmation  was  hardly  needed. 

»  Gratiolet  (  De  la  Physionomie,'  1865,  p.  66)  insists  on 
the  truth  of  this  conclusion. 


366  CONCLUDING  REMARKS  AND  SUMMARY.  Chap.  XIV. 

We  have  also  seen  that  expression  in  itself,  or  the  lan- 
guage of  the  emotions,  as  it  has  sometimes  been  called, 
is  certainly  of  importance  for  the  welfare  of  mankind. 
To  understand,  as  far  as  possible,  the  source  or  origin 
of  the  various  expressions  which  may  be  hourly  seen 
on  the  faces  of  the  men  around  us,  not  to  mention  our 
domesticated  animals,  ought  to  possess  much  interest 
for  us.  From  these  several  causes,  we  may  conclude  that 
the  philosophy  of  our  subject  has  well  deserved  the  at- 
tention which  it  has  already  received  from  several  excel- 
lent observers,  and  that  it  deserves  still  further  atten- 
tion, especially  from  any  able  physiologist. 


INDEX. 


ABSTRACTION. 


BULMEB. 


Abstraction-,  226. 

Actions,  reflex,  35 ;  coughing, 
sneezing,  <fec.,  35 ;  muscular  ac- 
tion of  decapitated  frog,  36 ;  clos- 
ing the  eyelids,  38  :  starting,  38- 
41 ;  contraction  of  the  iris,  41. 

Admiration,  289. 

Affirmation,  signs  of,  272. 

Albinos,  hlushmg  in,  312,  326. 

Alison,  Professor,  31. 

Ambition,  261. 

Anatomical  drawings  by  Henle,  5. 

Anatomy  and  Philosophy  of  Ex- 
pression, 2. 

Anderson,  Dr.,  106,  n.  26. 

Anger,  as  a  stimulant,  79 ;  expres- 
sion, 244 ;  in  monkeys,  136.  See 
also  Rage. 

Animals,  special  expressions  of,  115. 
See  alto  Expression. 

,    habitual    associated     move- 
ments in  the  lower,  42-49  ;  dogs 
43 ;    wolves    and    jackals,    44 
horses,  45;    cats,  46;    chickens. 
47  ;  sheldrakes,  &c.,  48. 

Annesley,  Lieut.,  R.  A.,  124,  n.  4. 

Antithesis,  the  principle  of,  50 ; 
dogs,  50,  57  ;  cats,  56 ;  conven- 
tional signs,  61. 

Anxiety,  176. 

Ape,  the  Gibbon,  produces  musical 
sounds,  87. 

Arrectores  pUi,  101, 103. 

Association,  the  power  of,  31 ;  in- 
stances 01,  31,  32. 

Astonishment,  278 ;  in  monkeys, 
142. 

Audubon,  98,  n.  I4. 

Avarice,  261. 

Azara,  126,  n.  6,  128,  n.  7. 

B. 

Baboon,  the  Anubis,  95, 133, 137. 
Bain,  Mr.,  8,  31, 198,  n.  4,  213,  n.  2L 
290,  n.  16,  327,  n.  26. 


Baker,  Sir  Samuel,  113. 

Barber,   Mrs.,   21,   107,  n.  28,  268, 

288 
Bartlett,  Mr.,  44,  48,  112,  122, 134, 

136. 
Behn.  Dr.,  810. 
Bell,  Mr.,  293. 
,  Sir  Charles,  1,  9,  22,  49,  115, 

120,  128,  n.  8,  144,  157,  171,  210, 

n.  17,  218,  220,  304,  336. 
Bennett,  G.,  138,  n.  16. 
Bergeoa,  168,  n.  21. 
Bernard.  Claude,  37,  68,  70,  n.  5. 
Billiard-player,  gestures  of  the,  6. 
Birds    ruffle   their    feathers  when 

angry.  97 ;  when  frightened  ad- 
press  them,  99. 
Blair,  the  Rev.  R.  H.,  311,  351. 
Blind,  tendency  of  the,  to  blush, 

310.  ' 

Blushing,  309;  inheritance  of,  311 ; 

in  the  various  races  of  man,  815; 

movementvS   and  gestures  which 

accompany,    320;    confusion    of 

mind,   322;    the    nature    of   the 

mental  states  which  induce,  325 ; 

shyness,     329  ;     moral     causes : 

guilt,  332 ;  breaches  of  etiquette, 

333 ;    modesty,   333  ;   theory  of, 

336. 
Blyth,  Mr.,  97. 
Bowman,  Mr.,  159,  n.  I4, 160,  n.  16, 

165,  169,  225. 
Brehm,   96,   128,  137,    n.   I4,    138, 

n.  15. 
Bridges,  Mr.,  22,  246,  260,  317. 
Bridgman,  Laura,  196,  212,  266,  278, 

285,  310. 
Brinton,  Dr.,  158,  n.  13. 
Brodie,  Sir  B.,  340. 
Brooke,  the  Rajah,  20,  207. 
Brown,  Dr.  R.,  108,  n.  29. 
Browne,  Dr.  J.  Crichton,  13,  76,  n. 

10,  154,  183,  197,  203,   242,  292, 

295,  313,  339,  n.  39. 
Bucknill,  Dr.,  296. 
Bulmer,  Mr.  J.,  20,  207,  250,  285, 

320. 


367 


368 


BUNNETT. 


INDEX. 


EXPRESSIONS. 


Bunnett,  Mr.  Templeton,  20,  177, 

268. 
Burgess,  Dr.,  5,  309,  319,  336. 
Burton,  Captain,  260. 
Button,  Jemmy,  the  Fuegian,  214, 

317. 

C. 

Camper,  Pierre,  1  and  n.  S. 

Canine  tooth,  uncovering  the,  247. 

Carpenter  on  the  principles  of 
Comparative  Physiology,  47,  n. 
17. 

Cat,  the,  46,  125 ;  preparing  to  fight, 
56 ;  caressing  her  master,  56  ; 
drawing  back  the  ears,  111 ;  lash- 
ing the  tail,  126;  movements  ot 
aflfection,  126 ;  when  terrified, 
127 ;  erecting  the  tail,  127  ;  pur- 
ring, &c.,  128. 

Catlin,  289. 

Caton,  the  Hon.  J.,  97,  n.  11. 

Cebus  azarse,  the,  132,  134. 

Chameleons,  105. 

Cheerfulness,  210. 

Chevreul,  M.,  6. 

Chimpanzee,  the,  95, 131. 

Cistercian  Monks,  gesture-language 
of,  61. 

Cobra-de-capello,  the,  105. 

Conceit,  261,  330. 

Contempt,  253 ;  snapping  the  fin- 
gers, 256. 

Cooke,  the  actor,  249. 

Cooper,  Dr.,  105,  n.  22. 

Cope,  Professor,  108,  n.  31. 

Coughing,  163. 

Crantz,  212,  259. 

D. 

Darwin,  Dr.,  30,  n.  3,  46,  n.  16,  77, 
n.  11. 

Deaf  and  dumb,  opposites  used  in 
teaching  them,  61,  62,  n.  3. 

Deceit,  261. 

Decision,  or  determination,  233 ; 
closing  of  the  mouth,  233-236. 

Defiance,  247. 

Dejection,  176. 

Depression  of  mind,  79. 

Dermal  appendages,  erection  of,  94  ; 
in  the  chimpanzee  and  orang,  95  ; 
lion,  &c.,  96 ;  dog  and  cat,  96  ; 
horses  and  cattle,  96  ;  elk,  96  ;  bat, 
97 ;  birds,  97  ;  under  the  influ- 
ence of  anger  and  fear,  99. 

Despair,  176. 

Devotion,  the  expression  of,  217- 
219. 


Dickens,  Charles,  241. 

Dilatation  of  the  pupils,  303. 

Disdain,  253. 

Disgust,  256 ;  spitting  a  sign  of, 
260. 

Dog,  the,  sympathetic  movements 
of,  7 ;  turning  round  before  lying 
down,  42 ;  pointing,  43  ;  scratch- 
ing, &c.,  45  :  antithesis  in  expres- 
sion, 57  ;  various  gestures  of,  63  ; 
barking  a  means  of  expression, 
85;  whining,  88;  drawing  back 
the  ears.  111 ;  various  movements 
of,  115 ;  gestures  of  affection,  118  ; 
g:rinning,  119 ;  pain,  121 ;  atten- 
tion, 121 ;  terror,  121 ;  playing, 
122. 

Donders,  Professor,  159,  165,  227, 
303. 

Duchenne,  Dr.,  5,  11,  13,  132, 143, 
148,  n.  J,  149,  n.  4,  180,  188,  200. 


E. 

Ears,  the,  drawing  back,  &c.,  110 ; 
in  fighting,  dogs,  cats,  tigers,  &c., 
Ill ;  horses,  112  ;  guanacoes,  &c., 
112 ;  moose-deer,  112 ;  rabbits, 
113  ;  wild  boars,  113  ;  monkeys, 
113  ;  ei-ection  of  the,  114. 

Edgeworth,  Maria  and  R.  L.,  331. 

Elephants,  113  ;  weeping,  165. 

Engelmann,  Professor,  227. 

Envy,  261. 

Erection  of  the  dermal  appendages, 
94-104. 

Erskine,  Mr.  H.,  21,  33,  185,  267, 
275. 

Etiquette,  breaches  of,  333. 

Expression,  anatomy  and  philoso- 
phy of,  2;  general  principles  of, 
27  ;  principle  of  serviceable  asso- 
ciated habits,  29  ;  principle  of  an- 
tithesis, 50 ;  principle  of  direct  ac- 
tion of  the  nervous  system,  66 ; 
means  of,  in  animals,  83  ;  emission 
of  sounds,  83-94 ;  erection  of  the 
dermal  appendages,  94-104;  in- 
flation of  the  body,  &c.,  104^110 ; 
drawing  back  the  ears,  110-114; 
erection  of  the  ears,  114. 

Expressions,  special,  of  animals, 
115  ;  dogs,  115-125  :  cats,  125-128  ; 
horses,  128-129  ;  ruminants,  129  ; 
monkeys,  baboons,  chimpanzees, 
130-144. 

,  special,  of  man,  146  ;  suffering, 

73,  146  ;  crying  in  children,  147  ; 
contraction  of  the  muscles  round 
the  eyes  during  screaming,  148 ; 


EYEBROWS. 


INDEX. 


ILL-TEMPER. 


369 


secretion  of  tears,  153, 162  ;  grief, 
176  ;  obliquity  of  the  eyebrows, 
178  ;  grief-muscles,  15,  179-191 ; 
depression  of  the  corners  of  the 
mouth,  191-195;  joy,  196;  high 
spirits,  cheerfulness,  210;  love, 
tender  feelings,  212;  devotion, 
217-219. 

Eyebrows,  obliquity  of  the,  178. 

Eyes,  the,  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cles during  screaming,  158. 


Face,  muscles  of,  22. 

Fear,  81,  289;  description  of,  by 
Job,  291. 

Feelings,  tender,  212;  excited  by 
sympathy,  214. 

Fighting,  mode  of,  in  animals.  111 ; 
all  carnivora  fight  with  their  ca- 
nine teeth.  111;  dogs,  cats.  111  ; 
horses,  guanacoes,  &c.,  112; 
moose-deer,  112;  rabbits,  113; 
boars,  113;  elephants,  113;  rhinoc- 
eros, 113  ;  monkeys,  113. 

Fingers,  snapping,  to  express  con- 
tempt, 256. 

Forbes,  Mr.  D.,  230,  317,  335. 

Ford,  Mr.,  95. 

Forster,  J.  R.,  317. 

Foster,  Mr.  Michael,  342,  343. 

Fox,  the,  124. 

Freycinet,  174. 

Frogs,  36,  104. 

Frowning,  the  act  of,  3,  220 ;  men  ot 
all  races  frown,  222 ;  in  infants, 
223 ;  to  assist  vision,  224 ;  to  ex- 
clude the  bright  light,  225. 

Fyffe,  Dr.,  303. 


Gaika,  Christian,  22,  207,  254,  294, 
319. 

Galton,  Mr.  F.,  33,  n.  8. 

Garrod,  Mr.  A.  H.,  74,  n.  9. 

Gaskell,  Mrs.,  150,  n.  5. 

Geach,  Mr.  F.,  20,  185,  250,  260,  267, 
316. 

Gesture-language,  61. 

Gestures,  32,  62;  inheritance  of  ha- 
bitual, 33,  n.  8;  accompanying 
blushing,  320. 

Glenie,  the  Rev.  S.  0.,21,  166,  n.  SO, 
250. 

Goose-skin,  101,  103. 

Gordon,  Lady  Duft",  316. 

Gorilla,  the,  95,  142. 

Gould,  100,  fi.  15. 

Gratiolet,  Pierre,  6,  32, 118, 156, 164, 


177,  200,  225,  227,  n.  6,  234,  241, 
n.  P,  336. 

Gray,  Professor,  and  Mrs.  Asa,  22. 
267,  315. 

Green,  Mrs.,  20. 

Grief,  80 ;  expression  of,  176  ;  obli- 
quity of  the  eyebrows,  178 ;  de- 
pression of  the  comers  of  the 
mouth,  191-195  ;  in  monkeys,  134. 

Grief-muscles,  15, 179-191. 

Gueldenstadt,  124,  n.  4. 

Guilt,  261  -causes  blushing,  332. 

Gunning,  Dr.,  161. 

Gtinther,  Dr.,  100,  104,  108,  n.  SO. 

H. 

Habit,  force  of,  29. 

Hagenauer,  the  Rev.,  19,  192,  262, 

320. 
Hair,  change  of  colour  in  the,  67, 

341 ;  erection  of  the,  101,  294. 
Haller,  88. 
'  Handbuch  der  Anatomic  des  Men- 

schen,'  5,  n.  7. 
Hares,  83. 
Harvey,  30,  n.  S. 
Hatred,  237  ;  anger,  indignation,  244 ; 

sneering,  defiance,  uncovering  the 

canine  tooth,  247. 
Heart,    the,    sensitive    to   external 

emotions,  68  ;  re-acts  on  the  brain, 

69  ;  att'ected  by  rage,  75. 
Helmholtz,  88,  91. 
Helplessness,  263. 
Henderson,  Mr.,  108,  n.  31. 
Henle,  22,  148,  n.  2,  S,  191,  n.  6,  201. 
Herpestes,  the,  96, 108,  110. 
Hiufh  spirits,  210 ;  definition  of,  by 

a  child,  210. 
Hippocrates,  30,  n.  3,  72. 
Holland,  Sir  Henry,  36,  37,  71,  n.  8, 

338,  n.  S3,  339. 
Homer's  description    of   laughter, 

196. 
Horror,  304. 
Horse,   the,  45 ;  nibbling,  pawing 

of,   45 ;    scream  in  distress,   84 ; 

fighting.  111 ;  expression  of  fear, 

pleasure,  &c.,  128. 
Humboldt,  134,  318. 
Humility,  261. 
Huschke,  287. 

Huxley,  Professor,  31,  n.  5,  35,  n.  9. 
Hysena,  the,  122. 

I. 

Idiots,  weeping,  155 :  expression  of 

joy  in,  197  ;  blushing,  310. 
Hl-temper,  228. 


370 


IMPOTENCE. 


INDEX. 


MUSIC. 


Impotence,  263. 

Indignation,  244. 

Infants,  exprcBsion  in,  13 ;  crying 
of,  147 ;  weeping,  152. 

Inflation  of  the  body,  &c.,  104 ;  in 
toads  and  frogs,  104 ;  chameleons, 
&c.,  105 ;  snakes.  105-110. 

Inheritance  of  habitual  gestures, 
33,  n.  S  ;  blushing,  311. 

Innes,  Dr.,  266. 

Intercommunication,  power  of,  with 
social  animals,  60 ;  deaf  and 
dumb,  61 ;  dogs  and  cats,  63. 


Jealousy,  79,  261. 

Jerdon,  Dr.,  108. 

Job,  description  of  fear  by,  291. 

Joy,  expression  of,  75,  196;  in 
young  children,  76 ;  dogs,  horses, 
76;  monkeys,  132;  high  spirits, 
cheerfulness,  210;  love,  tender 
feelings,  212. 

Jukes,  Mr.  J.  B.,  274. 

K. 

Kangaroos,  113. 

Kindermann,  Herr,  23, 147,  n.  1. 
King,  Major  Ross,  112. 
Kissing,  214. 
Kolliker,  100. 

L. 

Lacy,  Mr.  Dyson,  19,  230,  241. 

Lane,  Mr.  H.  B.,  20. 

Lang,  Mr.  Archibald  G.,  20,  320. 

Langstaff,  Dr.,  147, 151,  313. 

Language,  gesture,  61, 

Laughter,  91, 131, 163 ;  in  monkeys, 
131;  joy  expressed  by,  196;  in 
children,  196 ;  in  idiots,  197 ;  in 

frown-up  persons,  198;  caused 
y  tickling,  199  ;  sparkling  eye, 
204;  tears  caused  by  excessive, 
206;  among  Hindoos,  Malays, 
&c.,  207  ;  to  conceal  feelings,  212 ; 
incipient,  in  a  baby,  209. 

Lavater,  G.,  3,  n.  <?,  210,  n.  17. 

Lawson,  107,  n.  28. 

Laycock,  Professor,  338. 

Le  Brun,  1,  4,  245,  n.  IS. 

Leichhardt,  260. 

Lemoine,  M.,  2,  357. 

Lessing's  Laocoon,  14,  n.  19. 

Leydig,  101,  103. 

Lieber,  Mr.  F.,  197,  n.  S,  273. 

Lister,  Mr.,  101, 199,  n.  6. 

Litchfield,  Mr.,  89. 


Lizards,  105. 

Lockwood,  the  Rev.  S.,  87,  n.  S. 

Lorain,  M.,  74,  n.  9. 

Love,  maternal,  78;  of  the  opposite 

sexes,   78;    expression,    of,    212; 

kissing,  a  marK  of,  214;  excites 

tears,  214. 
Low  spirits,  176. 
Lubbock,  Sir  John,  154,  214,  n.  n. 

M. 

Man,  special  expressions  of,  146. 
See  also  Expression. 

Mankind,  Early  History  of,  256, 
n.6. 

Marshall,  Mr.,  155,  n.  9,  197,  n.  S. 

Martin,  W.  L.,  131, 186, 140,  n.  17. 

Martius,  318. 

Matthews,  Mr.  Washington,  22, 
228,  256,  268,  275,  289. 

Maudsley,  Dr.,  36,  n.  10,  40,  n.  U^ 
244,  340,  n.  40. 

Mauvaise  honte,  329. 

May,  Mr.  A.,  25. 

'  M6canisme  de  la  Physionomie  Hu- 
maine,'  11,  n.  16. 

Meditation,  226  ;  often  accompanied 
by  certain  gestures,  228. 

Meyer,  Dr.  Adolf,  274. 

Mind,  confusion  of,  while  blushing, 
322. 

Modesty,  333. 

Monkeys,  60;  power  of  intercom- 
munication and  expression  of,  60, 
88,  96 ;  their  special  expressions, 
130;  pleasure,  joy,  &c.,  131,  213; 
painful  emotions,  134;  anger,  136 ; 
redden  with  passion,  137  ;  scream- 
ing, 138 ;  sulkiness  in,  138 ;  frown- 
ing in,  141 ;  astonishment,  terror 
in,  142. 

Moose-deer,  the,  112. 

Moreau,  M.,  3,  210,  314. 

Mouth,  depression  of  the  corners, 
191-195 ;  closure  expresses  deci- 
sion, 233-236. 

Movements,  symbolic,  6 ;  sympa- 
thetic, 7 ;  accompanying  blush- 
ing, 320. 

,  associated    habitual,   in    the 

lower  animals,  42-49;  dogs,  43; 
wolves  and  jackals,  44 ;  horses, 
45 ;  cats,  46  ;  chickens,  47  ;  shel- 
drakes, &c.,  48. 

Mowbray  on  Poultry,  47,  n.  18. 

Miiller,  Dr.  Ferdinand,  20, 

,  Fritz,  11,  29,  n.  2,  68,  n.  S,  71, 

n.  <5,  268. 

Music,  217. 


NEGATION. 


INDEX. 


SOUNDS. 


371 


N. 

Negation,  signs  of,  272. 

Nervous  system,  direct  action  of 
the,  66 ;  change  of  colour  in  the 
hair,  67,  341 ;  trembling  of  the 
muscles,  67  ;  secretions  affected, 
68 ;  perspiration,  73  ;  rage,  74 ; 
joy,  76  ;  terror,  77  ;  love,  78 ;  jeal- 
ovisy,  79 ;  grief,  80. 

Nicol,  Mr.  Patrick,  14, 184,  300. 

O. 

Ogle,  Dr.  W.,  255,  n.  3,  270,  293. 
Oliphant,  Mrs.,  80,  n.  12,  270. 
Olmsted,  269. 

Owen,  Professor,  10,  n.  IS,  87,  n.  S, 
141,  71.  18. 

P. 

Paget,  Sir  J.,  68,  116,  312,  341. 

Pain,  outward  signs  of,  in  animals, 
69 ;  in  man,  69 ;  in  the  hippopota- 
mus, 70  ;  induces  perspiration,  73  ; 
depression,  81 ;  in  monkeys,  134. 

Parsons,  J.,  1,  n.  1. 

Persf)iration  caused  by  pain,  73. 

Physiology  of  laughter,  9. 

*  Physionomie,  de  la,  et  des  Mouve- 
ments  d' Expression,'  6. 

Piderit,  Dr.,  7,  23.  151,  204, 221,  235, 
255. 

Pigs  employed  to  destroy  rattle- 
snakes, 108. 

Platysma  myoides  muscle,  contrac- 
tion of  the,  297. 

Plautus,  228. 

Porcupines,  93. 

Pouchet,  M.  G.,  67,  n.  1. 

Pride,  263. 

Psychology,  Principles  of,  9. 

Puff-adder,  the,  105. 

Pupils,  dilatation  of  the,  303. 


Queries  regarding  expression,  &c., 
15. 

R. 

Rabbits,  83,  93, 113. 

Rage,  74,  238;  trembling  a  conse- 
quence of,  240 ;  Shakespeare's 
description  of,  240 ;  snarling  with 
the  teeth,  242. 

Rattlesnake,  the,  106, 109. 

Reade,  Mr.  Winwood,  21,  279,  288. 

Reflection,  220 ;  deep,  generally  ac- 
companied with  a  frown,  222. 


Keflex  actions,  35. 

Kejlander,  Mr.,  23,  147,  n.  1,  181, 

MO,  248. 
Rengger,  61,  88,  132,  n.  11, 134. 
Resignation,  270. 

Retching  or  vomiting,  158,  163,  258. 
Revenge,  261. 
Reynolds,  Sir  J.,  206,  n.  15. 
Rhinoceros,  73,  113. 
Riviere,  Mr.,  25,  120. 
Rothrock,  Dr.,  22,  230,  250,  259. 
Ruminants,  their  emotions,  129. 


S. 

Salvin,  Mr.  F.,  44,  n.  15. 

Sandwich  islanders,  174. 
i  Savage  and  Wyman,  Messrs.,  142. 

Schmalz,  273. 
j  Scorn,  253. 
I  Scott,  Sir  W.,  120. 
j  ,;  Mr.  J.,  21,  185,  246-248,  259, 

,  Dr.  W.  R.,  62,  n.  3. 

Scream,  as  a  call  for  assistance,  90. 

Secretary-hawk,  the,  109. 

Secretions,  affected  by  strong  emo- 
tions, 68. 

Senses,  the,  and  the  Intellect,  8,  n, 
8,2,1. 
I  Shaler,  Professor,  106, 109. 
j  Shame,  gestures  of,  320 ;  description 
I      of,  in  Isaiah,  Ezra,  &c.,  321. 
I  Sheldrake,  the,  48. 
!  Shoulder,  cold,  233. 
,  Shrugging  the  shoulders,  63,  263. 
;  Shyness,  322,  329. 

Signs  of  affirmation  and  negation, 
272 ;  conventional,  61. 

Slyness,  262. 

Smiling,  202,  208 ;  in  infants,  209 ; 
in  savages,  211, 

Smith,  Sir  Andrew,  207. 

Smyth,  Mr.  Brough,  19,  285,  294. 

Snakes,  105-110. 

Snapping  the  flngers,  256. 

Sneering  or  snarling,  247. 

Sobbing,  peculiar  to  the  human 
species,  156. 

Somerville,  119. 

Sounds,  the  emission  of,  efficient  as 
a  means  of  expression,  83;  be- 
tween the  sexes,  84 ;  to  animals 
when  separated,  84  ;  of  rage,  85  ; 
the  bark  of  a  dog,  85 ;  tamed 
jackals,  86  ;  pigeons,  86  ;  human 
voice,  86 ;  as  a  means  of  court- 
ship, 87  ;  music,  89  ;  in  young  in- 
fants, 92;  of  surprise,  contempt, 
and  disgust,  92 ;  rabbits,  93  ;  por- 


372 


SPEEDY. 


INDEX. 


YAWNING. 


cupines,   93  ;  insects,   94 ;  birds, 

94. 
Speedy,  Captain,  22,  260,  267. 
Spencer,  Mr.  Herbert,  9,  n.  11,  10, 

27,  n.  i,  29,  n.2,n,  86,  198,  225, 

n.  5,  262. 
Sphinx-moth,  the    humming-bird, 

30. 
Spitting,  a  sign  of  disgust,  260. 
Spix,  von,  318. 
St.  John,  Mr.,  47, 126. 
Stack,  the  Kev.  J.  W.,  20,  231,  246, 

316. 
Stuart,  Mr.,  280. 
Submission  in  dogs,  119. 
Suffering  of  body  and  mind,  146. 
Sulkiness,  230  ;  expression  of,  pre- 
vails throughout  the  world,  231 ; 

in  monkeys,  140,  232. 
Svunmary,  347. 
Surprise,  278. 
Suspicion,  261. 
Sutton,  Mr.,  95,  134,  136,  143, 162, 

258. 
Swinhoe,  Mr.,  21,  206,  246,  316. 
Sympathy,  215. 


Taplin,  the  Eev.  George,  20,  185, 
245,  320. 

Taylor,  the  Eev.  R.,  155. 

Tears,  cause  of  the  secretion  of,  162 ; 
laughing,  coughing,  163 ;  yawn- 
ing, 164  :  reflex  action,  168. 

Tegetmeier,  Mr.,  100. 

Tendencies,  inherited  or  instinctive, 
30. 

Tennent,  Sir  J.  Emerson,  165. 

Terror,  77,  289 ;  in  dogs,  121 :  in 
monkeys,  142;  in  an  insane 
woman,  292;  in  murderers,  293; 
dilatation  of  the  pupils,  303. 

Thwaites,  Mr.,  166,  n.  20. 

Tickling,  199. 

Toads,  104. 

Trembling,  induced  by  fear,  67 ;  by 


delight,  67  ;  by   fine  music,  68 ; 

by  rage,  68,  240 ;  by  terror,  77. 
Turner,  Professor  W.,  101,  n.  18. 
Tylor,  Mr.,  61,  n.  S,  256,  261,  n.  11. 


Vanity,  261. 

Variation   of  Animals  and   Plants 

under  Domestication,  33,  n.  8. 
Vaso-uiotor  system,  the,  69. 
Virchow,  35,  n.  5,  70,  n.  5. 
Voeux,  Mr.  des,  110,  n.  32. 
Vogt,  C,  204,  n.  12,  273. 
Voice,  in  animals,  83 ;  the  human, 


W. 


Wallich,  Dr.,  23,  200. 

Weale,  Mr.  J.  P.  Mansel,  21,  228, 

231,  285. 
Wedgwood,  Mr.  Hensleigh,  104, 163, 

n.  18,  219,  230,  n.  10,  239,  n.  6,  273, 

320,  n.  20. 
Weeping,  146;  the  period  of  first 

shedding  tears  in  infants  quite 

imcertain,  152  ;  in  savages,  153  ; 

in  the  insane,  154 ;  checking  or 

increasing    the    habit    of,    155 ; 

screaming  and  sobbing  of  infanta, 

156.     ISee  also  Tears. 
Weir,  Mr.  Jenner,  98. 
West,  Mr.,  21. 
Wild-boar,  113. 
Wilson,  Mr.,  19. 

,  Mr.  Samuel,  20,  319. 

'  Wissenschaftliches  System  der  Mi- 

mik  und  Physiognomik,*  7. 
Wolf,  Mr.,  26. 
Wood,  Mr.  J.,  180,  n.  3,  297,  302. 

,  Mr.  T.  W.,  23. 

Wrinkles,  202. 

Y. 

Yawning,  136, 164. 


(23) 


THE  END. 


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